The Polychrome Hieroglyph Research Project

Université Libre de Bruxelles - Faculté de Philosophie et Sciences sociales

A Palaeography of Polychrome Hieroglyphs

© David Nunn (2019)

Group A : Man and his Occupations

The Egyptian male figure is particularly well represented in the hieroglyphic canon. Group A in Gardiner’s list (EG 544) contains fifty-eight signs to which I have added five signs encountered during the recording of data. Of these sixty-three signs, thirty-three (52%) possess occurrences in the database, but only three are relatively frequent. The seated god A40 has nineteen occurrences, the seated man A1 has eleven and the seated man with hand to mouth A2 has nine. Fifteen signs have only one occurrence. Despite this lack of frequency, there is high consistency in the iconography and in the use of polychromy. Almost all of the occurrences of common men show the male figure as a bare chested, red skinned individual with black hair, wearing a white kilt.

This basic iconography of the squatting pose with red skin and white kilt can be traced back to the wall painting in tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis (Nekhen) which dates from the Late Gerzean period c. 3500 BC (Tiradritti 2008, 90-91). In the centre of the lower register can be seen three squatting figures with red skin and white kilts. The limbs are positioned in the same way as in sign A1 and all three figures face to the right as in the majority of hieroglyphic inscriptions. To their left are two scenes of hand-to-hand combat between a dark red figure and a paler figure. This distinction of colour may be one of rank or one of ethnicity. The costume of the pale figure has been interpreted as that of a priest (Tiradritti 2008, 92). In fact this combat could be a symbol of the supposed struggle between the darker-skinned Upper Egyptians and the paler-skinned Lower Egyptians. However, in one image, the paler figure has vanquished the darker one, as opposed to the traditional view of a victory of Upper over Lower Egypt. It seems, therefore, more likely to be a combat between Egyptians and other peoples, such as Asiatics or Libyans, both represented in later compositions by pale-skinned individuals.

This distinction between red and yellow skin has given rise to much speculation (Fischer 1963, 17-22; Baines 2007, 246-247; Eaverly 2013). The traditional view (Wilkinson 1994, 115), that men are red and women are yellow due to their daily activities, is too simplistic and too many exceptions can be noted (e.g. Tiradritti 2008, 51; 145). This view claims that men are red because they spend more time outdoors in the sun than paler skinned women who live mostly indoors. Although there is probably some truth in this theory, there are some representations of older men or men in authority that are coloured yellow (Fischer 1963, 17-19). A wall painting from the tomb of Iti at Gebelein, now in Turin (Tiradritti 2008, 144-145), shows a yellow-skinned overseer, with starched white kilt, ordering the butchery of a steer by a group of red-skinned, loincloth-wearing workers. However, these subtle distinctions are of lesser importance as far as hieroglyphs are concerned. Virtually all men in Group A are red (with some exceptions for occurrences of A20 an old man leaning on a forked stick). It is probably safe to say that the standard red skin colour of Group A signs symbolises the active (Egyptian) male principle, as opposed to the passive female principle symbolised by yellow skin (see the commentary on Group B). As is often the case, the wall painting canon has thus been carried over into the domain of polychrome hieroglyphs.

Surprisingly, the seated god A40 has red skin like ordinary mortal men, rather than the golden yellow colour that might be expected for a god (except for one occurrence that has yellow skin). Until Dynasty XIX, the god’s robe is white, but from this time onward, it can be coloured red, green, yellow or blue. The long hair or wig of the god is dark blue (supposedly lapis lazuli). The many different variants found for the god’s robe have resulted in the inclusion of several exemplars in the palaeography.

Of particular interest in Group A are the signs showing a man holding or carrying objects. A9 shows a man carrying some sort of receptacle on his head, balancing it with one arm. Gardiner (EG 443) has a problem providing a positive identification for this object, as he describes it as the “basket W10”. However, he then describes W10 as a “cup (probably also sometimes a basket)”. The colour of Ex. A9 may provide a clue. The basket, in this case, is too big to be a cup and is also coloured yellow: a colour which is never used for pottery. Other database occurrences of W10 are red (TT.87), white (KV.57) or yellow (Temple of Ramses II at Abydos). Red is a classic colour for pots. White and yellow can indicate stone (alabaster) as seen in Ex. O39 from KV.57 and all the occurrences of W3 . So, when W10 is used as a cup, the colour is red, white or yellow. However, when used as a basket in Ex. A9 it is yellow with red horizontal stripes. This colouring normally indicates something made of wood or wicker-work, not from fresh plant fibre which is green, such as for the baskets V30 and V31. The basket on the head of A9 is therefore probably some kind of wooden or wicker-work hod, used for carrying building material such as bricks or earth. This interpretation is confirmed by the use of the sign as a determinative for words concerning “work”.

A special mention must be made of an exception to the iconography of Group A Egyptian males. The mummy board of Penmaât (Mon.52) shows all the men wearing an additional length of linen slung over their forward shoulder. This could be either an extension of the kilt or else some kind of loose shawl. The portrayal in hieroglyphs of this garment is, as far as I can discover, unique to this monument, certainly in the database corpus. It could, in fact, be a pointer to a later date (Ptolemaic?) than is usually assigned to this object (Nunn 2015a). The same shawl can be found on the god with arms raised C11 from the same monument.


A1 : seated man





OccID = 1497
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 14 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : flesh red, hair and beard black, eye white and black, kilt white with black lines

This exemplar shows the typical deep red colour used for male skin.The hair and beard are black, as are the eye-line and pupil. The right hand has also been outlined in black, a detail that detaches it from the chest and creates a perspective effect. The kilt is white with a black outline which clearly differentiates the left and right thigh. The white in this case has been created simply by allowing the background to show through. One occurrence (Mon.33, see also Ex.A2) shows pleating of the white cloth and another (Mon.52) has a white shawl draped over the left shoulder, a feature only found on this monument. Most of the occurrences show identical colouring. Some have faded hair but only two Ramesside samples (Mon.42; Mon.43) show the "yellow background" variants of blue hair and green kilt (see Diachrony).

A1A : hieratic form of A1





OccID = 3570
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 284 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : body blue, arms red, fill yellow

This hieratic form of A1 is used in the inscriptions of the tomb of Ramses IV (Mon.56) as a substitute for the seated man. The body is blue, the arms are red and there is a yellow fill between the raised knee and the torso. The justification for such a shorthand sign in place of the common hieroglyph is unclear, especially as the hieroglyphic form is used elsewhere on this monument.

A2 : man with hand to mouth





OccID = 1787
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 22 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : hair black, flesh red, kilt white with red pleats and black outline

The skin is dark red. The hair and eye are black as is the outline. The pleats in the white linen kilt are red. The image is one of a stylised Egyptian male, as in the majority of the signs in Group A. Most of the occurrences of this sign show identical colouring, but with less detail in the kilt. One Dynasty XIX occurrence (Mon.42) shows the "yellow background" variants of blue hair and blue kilt, whereas another Ramesside sample (Mon.43) has no hair and a green kilt (see Diachrony).

A3 : man sitting on heel





OccID = 2949
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 24 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair faded (black?), kilt white

The skin is red as is the detail on the white kilt. The eye is white. The hair is faded but a contrast with the off-white background is evident, so white is not intended. Black has faded from all signs from this monument (Mon.48) as well as from the related "yellow background" inscription from the same tomb (Mon.49). All other colours have survived, so black hair would be a distinct possibility. On signs for gods from the same inscription, the wig is clearly blue as is often the case.

A4 : man with arms raised





OccID = 3129
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 25 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair black, kilt and shawl white

The skin is pale red, as are all other red signs from this monument (Mon.52). The hair is black and the kilt white. Unusually for this sign, and for the other similar representations of an Egyptian male on this monument, the figure also wears a white shawl tucked into the waist and slung across the shoulder.

A7 : man sinking to ground from fatigue





OccID = 2621
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 56 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : hair blue, body red

The skin is red. The kilt is suggested by a gap in the legs. The hair is blue. The colours have been simplified and altered by the yellow background, typical of the Ramesside Period (see Diachrony).

A8 : man performing 'henou' rite





OccID = 2112
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 26 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : flesh red, kilt white with red pleat lines, hair, beard and eye black

The skin is dark red. The hair, beard and pupil are black. The kilt is white with red pleats. The body is outlined in black which produces a perspective effect where the clenched fist strikes the chest (see also Ex.A1).

A9 : man steadying basket W10 on head





OccID = 2442
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 54 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : flesh red, kilt white, hair black, basket yellow with red lines

The skin is red. The hair is black. The eye is white with a black pupil. The kilt is white with red details. The receptacle carried on the man's head is termed the "basket" W10 by Gardiner in his entry for A9 (EG, 443). However, he also refers to it as a "cup" W10 ("probably sometimes also a basket") (EG, 528). In this exemplar, it is coloured yellow with red horizontal lines suggesting a wooden or wicker-work vessel, so this is probably a hod for carrying earth, for instance, thus symbolising manual labour.

A12 : soldier with bow and quiver





OccID = 1616
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 28 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : body red, hair black, kilt white, bow yellow with white fill, arrows yellow, feather white or yellow

This complex sign shows a kneeling archer, holding his weapons. The skin is dark red, the hair and pupil black and the kilt white with red details. The bow is reddish yellow, indicating an object made of wood, as too are the arrows. The feather worn on the archer`s head is very large compared to his body size. It is coloured white, with reddish yellow outline and veins, indicating an ostrich feather.

A14* : as A14 but blood interpreted as an axe





OccID = 3137
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 55 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair black, kilt and shawl white, blood red

The skin is red, the hair black and the kilt white. Gardiner identifies this sign as a "man with blood streaming from his head (A14)  ... but blood interpreted as an axe"  (EG, 443). This is confirmed by the axe head, which is clearly visible as a white (or transparent) mark touching the head. White is often used to indicate stone, as would be the case for a simple axe-head. The shaft of the axe is red, indicating wood.

A14C : man striking with stick?





OccID = 1555
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 29 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair black, eye black, kilt white with black outline, stick black or blue

The skin is red. The hair (unusually long) and eye are black. The kilt is white with a black outline and details. The cloth knotted at the back is especially prominent. This sign is a variant of A14, where the man appears to be wielding a stick, rather than an axe. The stick or baton is black. This does not seem to have any symbolic meaning, but is probably just a convenient way of drawing a very thin object (black is often used for such signs as the strokes Z1, Z2, Z3 etc.).

A15 : man falling





OccID = 3633
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 285 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair black (or blue), robe yellow

This falling man has the usual black hair and red flesh of Group A Egyptian males. The long robe, however, is yellow : typical of the Ramesside Period as a substitute for white (see Diachrony).

A17 : child sitting (on lap) with hand to mouth





OccID = 407
Monument : Benia TT.343
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1473 - 1400
ExemplarID = 286 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : body red, hair faded (black?)

The only clearly discernable colour here is red, showing the nakedness of the child. The lock of hair is probably faded black. A variant from the Dynasty XI Mon.55 shows the child wearing a white kilt, perhaps indicating an adult in the pose of a child, especially as the side lock of hair is not present.

A19 : bent man leaning on stick





OccID = 2293
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 31 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : hair black, flesh red, kilt white, stick indistinct

The skin is red, the hair black and the kilt white. The transparency of the kilt allows the shape of the thighs to show through, suggesting that the whole body was first painted in red, before the application of the white. The trace of a stick can be seen on either side of the hand but the colour is unclear.

A21 : man holding stick in one hand and handkerchief in the other





OccID = 2319
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 32 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair black (?, faded), kilt white

The skin is red. The hair is probably faded black. The kilt is white. The stick seems darker than the skin so is probably also faded black. No handkerchief is visible. There is a strong contrast in the pose with the similar sign A19. The left arm is straight, the body upright and the kilt shows a stiff pleat in the front.The same transparency which reveals the shape of the thighs can also be seen in Ex.A19 from the same monument.

A24 : man striking with stick





OccID = 2320
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 33 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, kilt white, stick and hair faded

The skin is red. The hair is probably faded black, the kilt is white with slight transparency (see Exs. A19 and A21). The stick, somewhat obscured by a long diagonal scratch mark, could be black.

A26 : man with one arm raised in invocation





OccID = 3131
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 34 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : flesh red, hair black, kilt and shawl white

The skin is red. The hair is black. The kilt and shawl are white. A white mark on the left hand probably indicates that the hand is open with the thumb uppermost. The shawl draped over the left shoulder is only found in the corpus on Group A signs from this monument (Mon.52 - the mummy-board of Penmaât). The other database occurrences of this sign just have the short kilt.

A28 : man with both arms raised





OccID = 3883
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 311 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : flesh red, hair black, kilt white

The skin is red, the hair black and the kilt white, as is typical for Egyptian male figures. A Ramesside variant (Mon.57) has a green robe as a substitute for yellow or white (see Diachrony).

A29 : man upside-down





OccID = 3621
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 288 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : flesh red, hair black, robe green(?)

The hair is black and the skin red. This Ramesside exemplar has a yellow or green robe as a substitute for white (see Diachrony).

A30 : man with arms outstretched





OccID = 2622
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 289 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : hair blue, flesh red, robe green

The hair is blue, the flesh red and the robe green. This is a typical Ramesside "yellow background" colour scheme (see Diachrony). A dynasty XVIII variant (Mon.32) shows the canonical red skin, black hair and white kilt.

A40 : seated god (curved beard and straight wig)





OccID = 2474
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 37 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face red, hair and beard blue, robe white

This common sign is one of the most varied in the corpus. The different occurrences show variations in the colour of the wig (blue, black), the face (red, green, blue), the robe (white, yellow, red, green, blue) and in the presence or absence of a collar (green) The following exemplars have been chosen in order to illustrate some of these variations. In this exemplar the face is red. The long wig and the curved beard are blue and indicate those of a god. The robe is white with a red outline and covers the entire body.

A40 : seated god (curved beard and straight wig)





OccID = 3133
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 39 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face and robe red, hair and beard blue, shoulder green

In this variant of the previous exemplar, the face is also red. The wig and beard are blue. The robe, in this case is red, indicating the prestigious red cloth worn often by the gods and offered to them by kings (see Ex.S29). The shoulders are covered by a green collar, probably of the floral variety, as green is the colour most used to indicate vegetation.

A40 : seated god (curved beard and straight wig)





OccID = 1221
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 38 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : robe white, face red, beard black, wig blue, collar green

This is also a variant of A40. The face is red with the eye picked out in black and white. The wig and curved beard are blue. The robe, which covers the body, is white. The collar is green, probably indicating a floral one.

A40 : seated god (curved beard and straight wig)





OccID = 1481
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 36 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face red, eye black and white, hair and beard black, green robe with stripes for collar

This is also another variant of A40. The face is red with a black pupil and eye-line. The wig and curved beard are black. The robe, which covers the body, is green. The significance of this green robe is unclear. The collar is indicated by horizontal black stripes over the green background.

A40E : seated god with curved beard and straight wig, holding an ankh





OccID = 2968
Monument : Userhat TT.56 yellow background
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 40 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face red, wig and ankh blue, robe white

The face is red, the wig and curved beard are blue. The robe, which covers the enire body is white. The ankh is blue with a white fill in the loop, indicating transparency (cf. Ex.S34).

A41 : king (uraeus, straight beard and coif'





OccID = 2478
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 41 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face red, beard blue, wig and robe white

The face is red. The beard is blue. The robe is white. The head covering is white, with the hanging part gathered in at the neck by a yellow (gold?) band. This is the ibes or nemes headdress (S57), worn by the king. There is no uraeus in this exemplar.

A42 : as A41 but with flagellum S45





OccID = 2322
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 57 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : face and hand red, robe white, flagellum (and uraeus?) yellow, hair faded

The face is red, as is the hand. The headdress is white, but might be another faded colour. There appears to be a uraeus at the front, but it is too indistinct to see the colour. The robe is white. The flagellum is yellow, indicating wood or some fibrous material.

A42A : king holding a mace (hedj)





OccID = 3135
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 42 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face red, wig white, beard blue, robe white with red markings, shoulder green, mace outline red

The face is red, the headdress is white with the uraeus picked out in red, possibly as a symbol of danger or aggression. The beard is blue. The robe is white with red outlines and details. The king wears a green (floral?) collar. The mace is red with the head outlined in red and left empty in the middle probably indicating stone.

A46* : seated king with pschent and flagellum





OccID = 1567
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 43 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face, hand, red crown, uraeus red, white crown white or yellow, beard and details black, robe green with white collar, flagellum green

The face and hand are red. The beard is black. The red crown of Lower Egypt has been painted first with a red uraeus, indicating the fiery, dangerous aspect of the royal cobra (Wilkinson 1992, 108-109. See also Ex.I10). The white crown of Upper Egypt has then been added using a black outline and a pale yellow fill. The robe is green with a black and yellow (gold?) collar. This green  colour for the robe is probably the result of green being substituted for yellow at this time (see Diachrony). The flagellum is also green instead of the more usual yellow.

A48 : beardless man (or woman?) holding knife(?)





OccID = 3884
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 290 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : hair black, face and hands red, eye black and white, robe white, knife (a stick?) red

The face is red with the eye picked out in white. A small beard is present but faded, confirming this as a man. The hair is black. The robe is white. The knife, which has a curved point, is red, symbolising its aggressive and dangerous aspect. Alternatively, it could be a curved stick, with red indicating a wooden object. This object is usually associated with the similar sign A49, an Asiatic holding a stick, but the context (iry - "relative to") is clear (see Mon.48, Occ. A48).

A51 : as A50 with flagellum S45





OccID = 2467
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 59 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : face and hands red, hair black, flagellum yellow, robe white, outline red, seat indistinct

The face and hands are red. The eye is white with a black pupil and outline. The hair is black, or maybe blue. The robe, which merges into the seat, is white with a red outline. The flagellum is yellow with a red outline indicating wooden or fibrous material.

A52 : noble squatting with flagellum S45





OccID = 2521
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 47 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : hair black, face red, eye white, arms red, robe white, flagellum yellow

The face is red, as are the forearms and hands. The eye is white. The hair is black. The robe is white with a red outline. The flagellum is yellow with a red outline indicating wooden or fibrous material.

A52* : noble squatting with lotus flower





OccID = 1490
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 48 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face, feet and hand red, hair and beard black, eye black and white, robe green, lotus flower blue

The face, hand and feet are red, the eye is white. The hair and beard are black. The robe is green with a paler collar. The lotus stem is indistinct and the flower is blue.

A53 : mummy upright





OccID = 3132
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 51 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : face and robe red, hair blue, shoulder green

The face is red. The hair and beard are blue, The lower body is pale red, with a darker red outline. The upper body is green, probably representing a floral collar. This exemplar has a red mummy cloth. This can often be seen in Roman era mummies (e.g. Tiradritti 1999, 386-387) but red mummy cloths are also known from Meydum as early as Dynasty III (Barber 1991, 224). The colour red in this context probably has solar connotations. A variant from KV.9 (Mon.57) has a bright yellow mummy cloth without a collar, which could represent gold - another solar symbol.

A255 : cube statue of man





OccID = 1533
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 53 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : cube white (or yellow?), face red with black and white eye, hair and beard black

The face is red. The hair and beard are black. The eyeball is white with a black pupil and black outline. The cube is white or pale yellow with a black outline. It is made of stone as this material is often shown as white or off-white (see Exs.W3, O39). An example of O39 from the same monument has identical colouring.

Group B : Woman and her Occupations

Group B is poorly represented in polychrome, monumental inscriptions. The group contains seven signs to which one additional sign has been added. Of these eight signs, only two possess database occurrences (25%), eight of B1, a seated woman and one of B8b, a variation of B8 showing a seated woman holding an open lotus flower. Most of the other signs in Group B concern birth or motherhood, so the absence of women from the inscriptions is understandable, when one considers the bias towards male owners of tombs and pharaonic architecture and the restricted subject matter of the texts.

As is to be expected from the previous discussion of Group A skin colouring, the signs in Group B have yellow skin. Again, the simplistic explanation of women’s indoor activities as being the reason for their paler skin is not justified by the evidence. For example, in the banqueting scenes from the south-west wall of the tomb of Nakht (Mon.41 - TT.52) we can see the distinction between upper-class, pink-skinned female guests at a banquet (Mekhitarian 1989, 84-85), and their lower-class entertainers, a trio of red-skinned female musicians (Mekhitarian 1989, 87). There is no reason to think that female musicians would have practised or performed in the open air (especially naked!), so the contrasting shades must be purely symbolic.

Eaverly (2013) takes a novel approach by comparing differences in Egyptian skin colouring with those of the figures on Archaic Greek Attic vases. The distinction in Greece is even more marked than in Egyptian, as black is used for men and white for women. Obviously, therefore, no attempt is made at realism, but the contrast serves instead as a classifier of male and female principles. Eaverly considers that this classification served as a support for pharaonic ideology and of the role of women as complementary opposites of men (2013, 54). Evidence for this view can be seen in the iconography of Hatshepsut where, despite the presence of some feminine secondary characteristics, her skin is red (e.g. Tiradritti 1999, 162). This demonstrates the importance of skin colour in symbolising the masculine role of the Pharaoh (see Eaverly 2013, 56-70). A similar case can be seen in the images of Nefertari in her QV.66 tomb, where her skin colour is pale red with darker red details, whereas goddesses in the same scenes have the usual yellow-gold skin. (Rickerby 1993, 49, Fig.8). This is probably done to emphasise the power and vigour of the Great Queen. Warburton (2008, 244) believes that an opposition existed between the colour rwD - the red used for male skin - which means something like “strong, hard” and nbw - the golden, bright colour used for female skin. This fits with the idea of Hatshepsut’s and Nefertari’s enhanced power, as mentioned above.

The classification created by the use of dark or pale skin seems therefore to be quite complex. On the one hand, we have a simple distinction between male and female, whereas on the other, there appears to be a distinction due to the person’s social status, of either ethnicity, rank, function, age or class.


B1 : seated woman





OccID = 2530
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 60 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : hair black, face yellow with red markings, robe white

The face is yellow. This is symbolic for Egyptian female skin as opposed to the red used for Egyptian male skin (see Ex.A1). The traditional theory suggests that female skin is pale because women spent more time indoors than labouring men (Wilkinson 1994, 115). The hair (or wig) is long and black and falls on either side of the shoulder. The robe is white with a red outline. In this exemplar, there is no modelling of the breast. The TIP and Late Period occurrences show a variation in the robe colour, which becomes red, as in the following exemplar.

B1 : seated woman





OccID = 1794
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 61 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, eye black and white, hair black, robe red

This variant of B1 shows the same yellow face, with the eye picked out in black. The hair or wig is black. As with the sign for the seated god A40 from the same monument, the robe is red with the edge of a yellow collar just visible under the wig. However, this exemplar does not show a goddess as it is used here in the group writing of rmT meaning "people".

B8B : woman squatting with lotus flower (open)





OccID = 1790
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 62 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : hair black, face, hand and feet yellow, robe red, lotus green stem with yellow flower

The face, hand and foot are yelllow. The facial features are picked out in black. The wig is black. There is the trace of a yellow collar covering the top of the red robe. The lotus stem is green and the open flower is yellow. This exemplar is used as a determinative for the goddess Neith. This shows that the colour scheme used here and in Ex.B1 from the same monument has no significance for distinguishing a goddess from an ordinary woman.

Group C : Anthropomorphic Deities

Gardiner’s Group C contains sixteen signs, to which have here been added four more. Five out of twenty signs, therefore, have database occurrences (25%). In Gardiner’s list, only C6 a cynocephalic god has a database occurrence. The other four additional signs signs are not included by Gardiner probably because his focus was primarily on Middle Kingdom hieroglyphs (EG 449) or simply because the variations are sometimes minimal (e.g. C10* where the only difference between it and C10 is the presence of an ankh sign held by Ma’at). The sign C11, a god supporting the sky with raised arms is shown by Gardiner as having an M4 palm branch on his head, but he states that C11 is also often found without this feature. This observation is borne out by the four occurrences in the database, two of which do not feature the branch. For this reason, a separate sign has not been created in the database.

The two remaining exemplars in Group C are C93, a Nile god holding a palm branch and C126, a female deity wearing a diadem on her head. According to Bryan (2007, 32), this headgear is a “modius” : a vessel for measuring grain. The colour red used in all three database occurrences of C126 would indicate a pot made of fired clay, which supports Bryan’s identification.

The deities depicted in the Group C exemplars display an interesting range of skin tones. The dog C6 is black, as in other signs showing Anubis or Wepwawet (E15, E17, E152). The goddess Ma’at C10* and the goddess Mut C126 both have yellow faces, as do all women. The god with arms raised C11 has the typical male skin colour of red, but the curved beard and long blue wig mark him out as a god. Interestingly, this exemplar shows the same unusual male dress as seen in other signs from this monument (Mon.52, the mummy-board of Penmaat) : the god has a white shawl or sash draped over the left shoulder. The Nile god C93 has either dark blue skin representing the river water, or dark green skin representing the aquatic environment, growth and fertility (the distinction between blue and dark green is difficult to see in this exemplar).

The hair (or wigs) of all the deities is blue. Gods’ hair was believed to be made of lapis lazuli (Mathieu 2009, 47; Hornung 1982, 153)).


C1 : god with sun and uraeus on head





OccID = 3611
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 291 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : robe red, upper body and face faded (green?), sun red

The upper body and face are faded but could be yellow and / or green. The robe is red: the prestigious variety often worn by the gods. The sun disk is red. There is no uraeus on this exemplar.

C6 : god with head of dog E15





OccID = 1293
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 63 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : robe white, head black, wig blue

The head is black with a pale mark for the eye. The wig which falls over the shoulders and down the chest is blue. Under the wig there are traces of a collar (red?). The robe is white.

C9* : goddess seated with uraeus





OccID = 3351
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 281 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face and uraeus yellow, hair black, robe white

The face is yellow, showing this to be a goddess with golden flesh. The uraeus is also gold. The hair (or wig) is black. The robe is white.

C10 : goddess with feather on head





OccID = 2422
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 292 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face yellow, robe white, feather white with red ribs

This exemplar is quite faded but some colours can be ascertained. The face is yellow showing this to be a golden-fleshed goddess. The robe is white. The hair is indistinct. The feather is white with red ribs, probably an ostrich feather.

C10* : goddess Mat holding an ankh





OccID = 1276
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 65 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : robe white, face yellow, hair blue, filet red, feather yellow and red, ankh blue with white fill

The face is yellow, indicating a female. The eye is picked out in black. The wig is dark blue with a red filet, knotted at the back : a piece of prestigious red cloth. The feather is yellow with a red outline. The robe is white. The hand is yellow. The ankh is dark blue with the centre white which symbolises transparency or emptyness. This is seen in many occurrences of the ankh (see Ex.S34).

C11 : god with arms supporting the sky (with M4 on head)





OccID = 3169
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 52 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : flesh red, wig and beard blue, robe white

This exemplar seems to lack the plant M4 on the head, although there is a small red mark curving backwards from the crown. However the long blue wig and the curved beard, signs of divinity, prevent any confusion with the similar sign A102 (present in the "manuel de codage", but with no occurrence here) : a squatting man with arms raised. The god wears a white robe that covers the lower torso, with a strap passing over the shoulder. The red skin and blue beard show that this is a male divinity.

C93 : nile god with palm branch and papyrus headdress





OccID = 1795
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 66 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : god blue, hair black, branch and papyrus green

This Nile god is blue, symbolising the water of the river. The pale patches on the thigh and leg are the result of slight damage to the sign. The hair is black. The palm branch and papyrus headdress are green, symbolising growth and fertility, emphasised by the rounded belly and pendulous breast of this fertility god.

C126 : goddess with diadem (modius) on head





OccID = 1295
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 67 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : robe white, face yellow, wig blue, modius red

The face is yellow with the eye picked out in black or blue. The long wig, falling over the shoulder, is blue. The robe is white. The modius, a cylindrical headdress, worn often by the goddess Mut and symbolising fertility, is red. As a vessel for measuring grain, supposedly the origin of the term (Bryan 2007, 32), the red colour would indicate some form of fired clay pot.

C126 : goddess with diadem (modius) on head





OccID = 3808
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 293 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : modius and wig faded, face and upper body yellow, robe red

The modius and the wig are faded. The face is yellow, as is the collar which also has red horizontal lines. The robe is red. This colour scheme is also found in the same sign from the Abydos temple of Sety's son Ramses II (Mon.51).

Group D : Parts of the Human Body

Group D is well represented in the database. Out of a total in Gardiner’s list of sixty-six signs, many of them simple variants, plus three added here, there are forty with database occurrences (58%), thirty-six of which have images. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the majority of these signs are coloured red, the colour of blood, life and vigour, representing human (male) flesh.

One fascinating exception is D2, a man’s face seen frontally. This sign is unusual in two ways. On the one hand, frontal views are extremely rare in Egyptian art (Schäfer 1974, 209) and on the other hand, yellow skin for the depiction of a man is equally rare (see above the discussions in Groups A and B). That this is a masculine image is borne out by the presence of a beard, coloured in the same way as the hair (usually black). Beards are normally reserved for gods, kings and the deceased (as an Osirian symbol), divine beards being distinguished by a curved tip. The beard on D2 is quite long with the tip broader than the upper part. This is typical of the Old Kingdom when statues of pharaohs were often embellished with this kind of beard. Examples can be seen, for instance, on statues of Netjerikhet, Khafre and Menkaure (Malek 1986, 54-55). Later kings did not sport facial hair and most beards seen in representations of pharaohs are “false beards”, with a strap holding them in place. It should be noted, however, that some commoners are occasionally shown to have small, trimmed beards and the sign D1 a man’s face seen in profile, can also have one (see exemplar and occurrences).

This would suggest that, as D1 and D2 have different skin colours, they do not represent the same category of person. D1 is obviously the standard red-bodied Egyptian male, as in most signs from Group A. D2 cannot be an Egyptian female, because of the cropped hair and beard. As we have seen for A20, yellow can also represent old age, but this use is rare. Yellow can also be used to symbolise Asiatics, but the frequency and antiquity of D2 would exclude this use. The earliest database occurrence of a yellow D2 comes from the Dynasty IV mastaba of Meresankh III at Giza (Mon.18), the latest from the Dynasty XXVII coffin of Khonsou-Tefnakht from el-Hibeh (Mon.31).

We are, therefore, left with the face of a god. The gods’ flesh was believed to be made of gold (Hornung 1982, 153), as this metal is imperishable and incorruptible. It was thus a potent symbol of eternal life (Wilkinson 1994, 83). Gold was also a solar symbol, associated with Re and his divine descendants. To ensure an identification with Osiris, the mummified body could also be embellished with gold, most notably in the form of a golden, gilded or painted mummy-mask (Wilkinson 1994, 84).

The dictionary gives no clue to the yellow face, as the basic meaning of Hr is “face”, “head” or “sight” (FCD 174; Wb III, 125). Perhaps the face was considered to be something sacred or as a kind of “window to the soul”, as colour is often used to portray the substance rather than the reflected surface of an object (see chapter 6 - Colour Symbolism). Some of the occurrences even show a face that is almost transparent, devoid of any colour.

Another intriguing observation is that in two occurrences (Mon.39 - TT.100; Mon.40 - TT.69), the eyes are turned sideways away from the viewer. This is no accident nor the result of poor draughtsmanship, especially in the carefully drawn exemplar from the tomb of Menna. This must be in order to avoid the “evil eye” (LÄ VI, 1320-1355) or to prevent the reader from baring the “soul” of the hieroglyph.

So, we are left with two options. Either the yellow face is that of a god (so also a deceased pharaoh) or it could be that of a man, where the colour is a way of depicting the transparency of the face as a reflection of the inner being. I have a preference for the latter.

There is another sign for part of the face, D19 the nose, eye and cheek of a human shown in profile, which is almost always yellow. This could be for the same reasons as for D2, but this is a profile view and would be expected to have the same colour as D1. In the absence of any hair or a beard, it could represent either a divine nose, eye and cheek, or those of a woman. In this case, the dictionary may be of some help. As well as the basic meaning of fnD being “nose”, xnt can also be a synonym of Hr meaning “face”. So this could indeed be just another representation of the face with its yellow colouring. However, I have another suggestion : D19 is also associated with words for pleasure, such as sn “smell, perfume, kiss” (FCD 230), rSwt “joy” (FCD 153), xntS “have / give enjoyment” (FCD 195), sfn “be kindly” (FCD 224) : all words that suggest feminine characteristics. In this case, the yellow would simply correspond to the usual colour used for women’s skin.

Two exemplars from this group, D21 the mouth and D54 two legs walking, illustrate one of the uses of white : to indicate empty space (often replaced by yellow in some Ramesside inscriptions). Many of the occurrences of D21 show the space between the lips as white, indicating that the mouth is open. The walking legs often show this fill colouring (see also M18), as does one occurrence of D28 the extended arms. The intended effect may be one of symbolic movement : the mouth opening and closing, the legs actually walking and the arms reaching out to embrace.

The two exemplars of D4 the eye, present an interesting case of different colours used for the same sign on the same monument (Mon.32, TT.74, Tjanuni). The iris in the first exemplar is red and in the second is black. The eye is a powerful and complex symbol in Egyptian myth and religion (Rundle Clark 1959, 218-230). The red eye is associated with solar imagery such as in the eye of Re whence came humankind in the form of tears, the protective and fierce Uraeus and the right eye of Horus. The black eye is the left eye of Horus, associated with lunar imagery. This was the eye that was torn out by Seth and restored to Horus by Thoth, the lunar god (Broze 1997, 252-253). As god of the underworld, Osiris is also associated with this “eye” of the night. This is the symbolism intended in these exemplars. Whereas the red eye is used in all the common words such as irw, irt and mAA (“make, do" and "see”), the black eye in these inscriptions from TT.74 is used exclusively in the name of Osiris - Wsir. Another rare sign (D119 a pair of eyes) from Mon.31, the coffin of Khonsou-Tefnakht, shows the same black irises. The symbolism is probably lunar and underworld, but the adjoining text is lacunary. The eye of Horus - the Wedjat - seen in exemplar D10 has a black iris, showing this to be the left eye restored by Thoth.

Two exemplars of D6 an eye with make-up on the eyelashes, both have the more common red irises. One has the typical green eye-paint whereas the other has red make-up. The context shows that this is not just a substitute for D4, as in this inscription D6 is used only in the word Sp meaning “(be / make) blind” (FCD 264). Eye make-up is used in many cultures as a means of protecting the eye against infection, so in this case the use of green eye-paint may be a way of rendering the word for blindness harmless to the deceased. Red make-up does not seem to have existed in reality, as green malachite was in use until the middle of the Old Kingdom when it was replaced by black galena (kohl) (Aston 2000, 44). The red used here may, therefore, be a symbol for “danger / evil”, to warn the deceased (or the reader) of the peril of this word Sp.

The sign D45 an arm with the hand clutching a nHbt wand presents an interesting case. One intriguing possibility is that the nHbt is a brush made of plant fibre. This idea was first proposed by Gardiner on purely linguistic grounds (1946, 51). The green colour used here in this exemplar adds weight to this suggestion (see also D45*, a two-handed version of D45). Fischer also cites an example from the reign of Tuthmosis IV showing the nHbt as a lettuce (1999, 19, fig. b.), but this interpretation seems more unlikely as the form does not correspond to that of the usual depiction of the plant.

The sign D61 supposedly represents human toes. However, this image of part of the human anatomy seems curiously inaccurate. Although early examples bear a vague resemblance to toes (see a Dynasty IV example in Fischer 1999, 20, fig.a.), the sign rapidly became more stylised (see a Dynasty V example in Fischer 1999, 20, fig.b.), with the “toenails” appearing as loops. Although this exemplar is red, a Dynasty V variant is green. The very similar D62 takes us even further from a depiction of human toes, as in the exemplar they are coloured green with red loops. It is also legitimate to ask why only three toes are represented and what the curious bar (or horizontal toe) at the base is supposed to be. A comparison with Ex.D50 (the single, upright finger) from the same monument (Rekhmire Mon.39) shows a distinct difference in the representation of digits, D50 being totally naturalistic. I would therefore suggest that these signs D61 and D62 represent something other than toes, but any revised identification must be the result of further detailed research.


D1 : head in profile





OccID = 1239
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 69 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : face red, hair and beard and eyebrow black, eye black and white

This detailed exemplar has a red face with features (eyebrow, nostrils and mouth) picked out in black. The eye has a black outline and pupil and the eyeball is white. The hair and short beard are black. Some variants do not posess the beard. This profile view is like a close-up of the sign A1 (and others in that group), in strong contrast to the facial view seen in D2.

D2 : face





OccID = 2072
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 71 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, details red, eyes, hair and beard black

The skin is yellow. The eyes have black pupils and eye-line. The other features are drawn in red. The hair and the beard are black. This sign is highly unusual in that it shows a frontal view of the face. Rare even in the much freer wall paintings (e.g. the astronomical ceiling in KV.V/VI -  Mekhitarian 1989, 66), this face is also intriguing because of the yellow skin, normally only used in hieroglyphs to indicate  Egyptian women or gods. This sign is clearly masculin as the beard is always present. This may indicate that the face is that of a god. However, some occurrences are quite transparent, maybe with some deeper meaning. It is also noteworthy that the sign for a face (eye, nose and cheek) seen in profile (D19) is also often yellow or transparent.

D2 : face





OccID = 1791
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 70 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, features, hair and beard black

This exemplar of the face is transparent, simply allowing the background to show through, although there appears to be a slightly darker tint to the skin, maybe being faded yellow. Similar examples of pale skin can be seen on Mons.31 and 52. The hair beard and features are black. There is much detail, such as in the flare of the nostrils.

D2 : face





OccID = 2438
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 72 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, features red, hair, pupils and beard black

The skin is yellow. The hair and the beard are black. The features are drawn in red. An interesting feature of this exemplar is the black pupils of the eyes, which are deliberately turned to the right, thus avoiding a direct stare into the viewer's own eyes. This is possibly a way of warding off the "evil eye" (LÄ VI, 1320-1355). The same feature can be found in the contemporaneous tomb of Rekhmire (Mon.39).

D2 : face





OccID = 1299
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 294 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, eyeballs white, irises black, hair black, beard (mistaken for neck?) yellow

One of the variants found for this sign is the beard which is yellow. This exemplar shows that this is intentional as the hair is clearly coloured black. This may show that the beard is interpreted here as being the neck.

D4 : eye





OccID = 1630
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 17 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : outline black, inner white, iris red with black pupil

The eyeball (sclera) is white. This is certainly intentional, as the contrast between the white of the eye and the off-white of the background, is clearly visible. The iris is red with a black outline. The pupil and eye-line are black. Variants do not always have the pupil marked. The red iris is an allusion to the right eye of Horus with its attendant solar imagery (Rundle Clark 1959, 218-230).

D4 : eye





OccID = 1631
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 276 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : outline black, inner white, iris black

This sign, from the same monument as the previous exemplar, has a black iris, identifying this as a lunar symbol (Rundle Clark 1959, 218-230). It is used on this monument exclusively in writings of the name of Osiris, thus accentuating his role as god of the underworld. None of the black iris variants shows the pupil.

D6 : same as D5 (later)





OccID = 1593
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 73 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : eye surround blue, fill white, pupil red, lashes green with blue lines

The eyeball (sclera) is white. The iris is red. The eye-line is blue. The eye-lashes are green with darker blue lines. This a cosmetically "made-up" version of D4 although the meaning is different. D6 is used in the word Sp "to be blind" (FCD 264).

D6 : same as D5 (later)





OccID = 3168
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 78 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outline black, eyeball white, iris red, paint above eye red

The eyeball (sclera) is white. The iris is red. The eye-line is black. The eye-lashes are red. Again, the context of this inscription shows that this variant of D4 is only used in the word Sp meaning "(be / make) blind".

D10 : human eye with the markings of a falcon's head





OccID = 1832
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 74 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outline and details black, iris white, background yellow

The eyeball (sclera) is white. The outline and details are black. An additional vertical stroke forms an enclosed area which is yellow. The fact that the iris is black shows that this is the eye of Horus reconstituted and returned by Thoth. The other features are the markings found on a falcon's head.

D19 : nose, eye and cheek





OccID = 2094
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 75 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, eye black and white, features and outline red

The face is yellow. The outline and the nostril are red. The eyeball is white. The iris and eyebrow are black. This is plainly a profile of the yellow frontal face D2, distinguished quite clearly from the red Egyptian male profile of D1.

D19 : nose, eye and cheek





OccID = 1540
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 77 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face yellow, features and outline black or blue

The outline and features are black (or dark blue?). The skin is pale yellow or transparent, like the sign D2 on this monument. This reinforces the view that these two signs are symbolically linked.

D19 : nose, eye and cheek





OccID = 1793
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 76 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face red, eye white with black iris

The face is red. The eyeball is white. The iris is black. Unusually, despite the face D2 on this monument being transparent or faded yellow, this facial profile is red like its images of Egyptian males. Perhaps, by this time, the symbolic distinction may have become blurred.

D21 : mouth





OccID = 1459
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 79 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red with white fill

The lips are red. The centre is white, indicating empty space or transparency. White is not always present, but in this case it shows a distinct contrast to the off-white background. As with many signs for parts of the human body, this is a representative image, with red being the dominant flesh or skin colour.

D28 : arms extended so as to embrace?





OccID = 1519
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 80 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The arms are red with no detail apart from moulding of the biceps and the hands. One occurrence from Mon.43 shows a white fill between the arms, but this is only necessary because of the yellow background, typical of the Ramesside period to which this occurrence belongs. Another occurrence from this period shows a yellow fill on an off-white background (Mon.56).

D29 : combination of D28 and R12





OccID = 1891
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 81 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : arms red, standard black with red cloth

The arms are red representing human flesh. The standard is black, probably indicating a wooden object painted black.Variants also have red. All occurrences of the standard in the sign R12 are in fact red, probably indicating wood. There is a short length of (prestigious) red cloth at the centre (see Ex.S29). A variant also has white. At the front, there is a protuberence called SdSd whose signification remains obscure (ZÄS 47, 88). It is often white (Ex.R12) or in this case yellow, maybe indicating the egg sign H8. It could in fact be an ostrich egg, especially as their colour varies between white, off-white and yellow: exactly the colouring of the occurrences (Occs.H8). The egg is associated with filiation and is a symbol of female divinity, especially that of Isis.

D32 : arms enclosing or embracing





OccID = 2423
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 82 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

The arms are red, with slight detail in the thumbs. This is just a representational sign showing human flesh.

D34 : arms holding shield and battle-axe





OccID = 3159
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 83 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : arms red, shield outline and spots black, axe black (or blue?)

The arms and hands are red. The axe is black or dark blue. The shield is white with a black outline and black spots. The arms are representative of human flesh. The axe could be made of metal, one of the uses of dark blue or it could be a black stroke simply showing a small thin object of indeterminate material (as in the signs of men wielding a weapon (Exs.A14C, A24). The shield is of the type often seen on models, with a spotted cow's skin stretched over a wooden frame; (e.g. from the Dyn.XI tomb of Prince Mesehti at Asyut - Tiradritti 1999, 108-109).

D35 : arms in gesture of negation





OccID = 1550
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 84 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

These sylised arms are red, representing male, human flesh.

D36 : forearm





OccID = 1637
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 85 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh.

D37 : forearm with hand holding X8





OccID = 1211
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 86 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : arm and hand red, offering black triangles with white fill

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh. The "conical loaf" X8 is white with a black triangular outline and an inner triangle of indiscriminate colour. Black does not suggest bread as the substance represented, although another loaf sign X1 is also similarly coloured (see the commentaries on X1 and X8). Variants show the outer triangle as blue or possibly yellow. The inner triangle is not always present (probably due to its reduced size).

D38 : forearm with hand holding a rounded loaf





OccID = 2326
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 295 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : arm red, loaf white (or faded?)

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh. The loaf is white or faded, with what appear to be yellow or red markings

D39 : forearm with hand holding bowl W24





OccID = 1214
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 87 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : arm and hand red, bowl red with black top

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh.The bowl W24 is red underneath and black above. This is typical of black-topped pottery (see discussion of Ex.W24).

D40 : forearm with hand holding stick (replaces A24)





OccID = 2769
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 88 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh. The stick is red, indicating wood. Variants show the stick as yellow, blue or black.

D41 : forearm with palm of hand downwards and upper arm flexed





OccID = 3146
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 89 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh.

D43 : forearm with hand holding flagellum S45





OccID = 1270
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 90 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : arm red, flagellum yellow

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh. The flagellum has a yellow shaft indicating wood. The flail is too faded to distinguish what are probably several colours representing strings of beads.

D45 : arm with hand holding the nehbet wand





OccID = 1246
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 109 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : arm red, wand green with yellow handle

The upper arm, forearm and hand are red, representing male, human flesh. The nHbt wand has a yellow handle, representing wood. The top of the wand is green, normally symbolising some sort of vegetal matter. Variants show the whole wand as yellow.

D45* : two hands and forearms holding nehbet wand





OccID = 1606
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 91 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : arms and hands red, wand green

This is an unusual variant of D45 showing two hands and forearms. The upper arm, forearms and hands are red, representing male, human flesh. The nHbt wand is green, normally symbolising some sort of vegetal matter.See the commentary on D45.

D46 : hand





OccID = 1461
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 93 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The hand is red, representing male, human flesh.

D47 : hand with curved palm





OccID = 30
Monument : Haremheb TT.78
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1352
ExemplarID = 94 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

The hand is red, representing male, human flesh.

D50 : finger (vertical)





OccID = 2328
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 95 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : finger red, nail white (or pink?)

The finger is red, representing male, human flesh. The fingernail is white (or maybe pink).

D52 : phallus





OccID = 2428
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 97 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The phallus and testicles are red, representing male, human flesh.

D53 : phallus with liquid issuing from it





OccID = 1536
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 98 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : phallus red, liquid blue

The phallus and testicles are red, representing male, human flesh. The drops of liquid are blue: a common colour symbolising liquid of any kind. Variants show the liquid as black (a substitute for blue or a symbol of fertility) or red (possibly to simplify the colouring).

D54 : legs walking





OccID = 2078
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 99 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red, fill white

The legs and feet are red, representing male, human flesh. The white fill indicates empty space, maybe giving the image the look of legs in motion.Variants show the fill as yellow or absent. This dynamic use of white can also be seen in M18, the sign for a  flowering reed with a front leg attached, separated from the stem by a white fill.

D55 : legs walking backwards





OccID = 1547
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 101 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

The legs and feet are red, representing male, human flesh. Variants have a white fill.

D56 : leg





OccID = 2330
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 102 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The leg and foot are red, representing male, human flesh.

D58 : foot





OccID = 2758
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 103 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The lower leg and foot are red, representing male, human flesh.

D59 : combination of D58 and D36





OccID = 3158
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 104 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

The lower leg and foot are red, as are the upper arm, forearm and hand, all representing male, human flesh.

D60 : combination of D58 with a vase from which water flows





OccID = 1645
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 105 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : foot red, lower half of vase red, upper half blue, liquid blue

The lower leg and foot are red, representing male, human flesh. The vase has a red base and upper half blue as in "black-topped ware" (see also Ex.W 24). The liquid, which appears to have been painted over a red sketch mark is faded, but recognizably blue: a common colour for liquid of any kind. Variants show the vase as black base with red top or as all red.

D61 : toes





OccID = 3124
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 106 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

The toes are red, representing male, human flesh. For a discussion of the signification of this hieroglyph, see the commentary on D61.

D62 : toes (XVIII dyn. version of D61)





OccID = 2331
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 107 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : "toes" green, loops red

In this sign, a variant of D61, the toes are green, a colour normally  symbolising vegetation, growth and fertility : unique for a part of the human anatomy. The loops ("toenails") are red. See also the commentary on D61.

D119 : two eyes (L & R) with eyebrows





OccID = 1608
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 108 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : black

These two eyes, complete with eyebrows are black. The context is lacunary. The black irises would suggest lunar (underworld) symbolism (see Ex.D4).

D121 : mouth with liquid issuing from the side





OccID = 666
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 296 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : lips red, water (faded) blue

This exemplar is somewhat faded but the mouth is clearly red and the liquid is probably blue.

D145 : arm with curved line of water (?) above hand





OccID = 176
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 282 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : arm red, water grey

The arm and hand are red. The water is probably faded black or blue.A  variant, from another contemporanaeus slab stela (Mon.16) has a yellow arm, but the interchange of red and yellow is not unusual for this early period.

Group E : Mammals

Group E contains eighteen signs with three added here. Of these twenty-one, eighteen possess database occurrences (86%), fourteen of which have images. Most exemplars in this group have naturalistic colouring.

The bull E1 has a variegated red-brown spotted hide. Its aggressive variant E2 has a grey-blue hide which is also compatible with a natural colour. Surprisingly, the aggressive nature of this variant is not coloured a metaphorical red, as one might expect.

E9, according to Gardiner, represents a newborn bubalis or hartebeest. The latter seems indicated by this image, not only because of the elongated head and ears but also because of the pale pink of the skin. A newborn bubalis has a more massive head and is much darker.

The similar signs E10 and E11 have typical naturalistic colouring of either yellow and black or black and white. The same is true of the yellow and red goat with a seal around its neck E31. Sheep and goats in reality show great variation in colour.

The recumbent dog E15 and the standing dog E17 are black. The composite sign E152 of a recumbent dog with flagellum sitting atop a shrine also shows the dog as black. This is a metaphorical use of colour, as the dog is associated with death, the underworld and the necropolis.

The recumbent lion E23 in this exemplar is a remarkably accurate, naturalistic drawing. The blue mane, typically found on the foreparts of a lion F4 is absent here.

The elephant E24, in the absence of the colour grey, is painted in what appears to be a stippled coat of reddish-brown on black. The resulting naturalistic tone is quite effective.

One very common sign from Group E is the desert hare E34. Its natural brown coat is rendered in hieroglyphs as yellow with dark (often red or blue-black) spots. As well as providing an approximation to brown, a colour absent from the scribe-painter’s palette, this scheme is the same as that used to portray the sandy and stony desert in signs such as N25 and N27. The same colouring can also sometimes be seen in other desert animals such as the horned viper I9 and the cobra I10. In the same way that non-naturalistic blue wings identify a bird as a creature of the sky, red or blue-black spotted yellow associates an animal with its desert habitat.


E1 : bull





OccID = 3166
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 110 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red (faded), possibly pale patches(?)

The body is pale red or yellow, with white patches. The outline and the legs and tail are darker red. The head is raised and tilted backwards but the horns are indistinct. This is a purely naturalistic image, showing the typical variegated (sAb) hide of a bull.

E2 : aggressive bull





OccID = 2639
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 111 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue

The bull is dark blue, maybe with lighter patches. Dark blue is probably a substitute for black in this Ramesside monument as other signs (such as the eye D4) are coloured in the same way  Variants also show black as the main colour. The yellow background and limited palette of red, white, green and blue are typical of this period (see Diachrony). As in Ex.E1, this is a purely naturalistic image.

E9 : newborn bubalis or hartebeest





OccID = 2332
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 112 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : faded red? or pink?

Pink is probably the colour intended,when compared to other red signs in the same inscription (Mon.39). It could symbolise (or represent) the newborn, as the same use of pink can be seen in the sign for a duckling (see Ex.G47). Variants have red or even blue.

E10 : ram





OccID = 3572
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 297 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : body and legs yellow, mane blue, horns faded

The body is yellow and the mane blue, possibly a substitute for black. The horns are indistinct. In the Ramesside variant (Mon.43), the body is faded green, probably a substitute for yellow as is often found in yellow background inscriptions (see Diachrony). Another variant, the occurrence from Mon.13, the Dynasty VI mastaba of Mehu, is all black.

E11 : ram (O.K. form of E10)





OccID = 1306
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 277 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : head, horns and chest black, hindparts white with black spots

This sign shows the ram of Khnum (Wilkinson 1992, 60-61). A highly detailed, naturalistic image, the ram's hide is white with black patches. The head, shoulders and horns are also black. The drawing shows that particular attention has been paid to the fine detail of the tail, legs and hooves. A variant from Mon.23 has a brown and black body with a blue mane.

E15 : recumbent dog





OccID = 1860
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 114 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

The dog (or jackal) is totally black. This is a symbol of the necropolis and the underworld, used as an ideogramme or determinative for the funerary god Anubis. This sign (and other canine lmages such as E152) is one of the few that are consistently black throughout the pharaonic period.

E17 : jackal





OccID = 3165
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 115 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

The jackal is totally black, possibly through association with the sign E15.

E23 : recumbent lion





OccID = 1591
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 116 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : yellow with black outlines and details

The skin of the lion is faded yellow (confirmed by other signs from Mon.31 such as G43). There is a considerable amount of detail, picked out in black, which gives a very naturalistic drawing. Note the absence of a blue mane such as is often the case for the foreparts of a lion (F4).

E26 : elephant





OccID = 1308
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 278 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : body grey, tusk white, eyeball white, iris black, feet black

The elephant in this sign is coloured in a mixture of brownish-black, giving the impression of dark grey. The eyeball is white, the iris black. The tusk is white with a fine yellow outline to distinguish it from the background. The feet are black even though in reality the feet and legs show no difference in colour.

E31 : goat with collar carrying a cylinder seal





OccID = 3162
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 117 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : body outline and details red, horns, beard and hooves black

The body is pale red, covered in fine detail picked out in a darker red. The horns, beard and hooves are black. The black hooves and horns would suggest that this is a naturalistic representation. The red colour of the hide is therefore probably a substitution for brown, common in goats' skin.

E34 : desert hare





OccID = 2473
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 118 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : yellow with blue spots, ears with red markings

The body is yellow with dark blue or black spots. The rear parts are outlined in dark blue or black. The ears and face are detailed in red. The outline of the foreparts and the tail are red. The dark spots on a yellow body could be semi-naturalistic indications that the hare is a creature of the desert (cf. the viper I9).

E152 : recumbent dog with flagellum, on shrine





OccID = 1287
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 119 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : dog black with white eye and red collar, flagellum yellow, shrine white with red door and blue and red frieze

The dog is black with the eyeball picked out in white. It wears a scarf of prestigious red cloth around the neck with the two free ends separated by white (ie. empty) space. The flagellum is yellow with darker rings on the handlle. The shrine is depicted as in reality with whitewashed walls and and a red (wooden) door. A red, white and blue frieze decorates the cornice. The context shows that this is the black dog deity Anubis, coloured in this way to symbolise the underworld and his specific domain of the necropolis.

E165 : lion(ess) with axe above, joined by (?)





OccID = 178
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 283 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : lioness yellow, axe yellow with blue blade and black lashings, joining object (?) red

This early (Dynasty IV) composite sign shows a lion(ess) with a yellow body and face with a dark (blue or black) collar and tip of the tail. Above the animal there is an axe with a yellow (wooden) handle and a blue (flint) head. The axe is joined to the lion by a red line with a rounded kink in the middle. The significance of this line is unclear.

E171 : Two back to back lions





OccID = 3639
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 298 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : faces red, bodies green, hair and beards blue

This sign shows unusual colouring which suggests that the lions are in fact sphinxes. The faces are red and the beards blue or black, indicating human or divine creatures. The bodies are green, quite possibly as a Ramesside substitute for yellow, indicating the natural colour of lions.

Group F : Parts of Mammals

This group contains contains fifty-one signs with one added here. Of these fifty-two, thirty-one possess database occurrences (60%), twenty-six of which have images. Most exemplars in this group have naturalistic colouring, but there are some notable exceptions.

The head of an ox F1 has variable patterns of colouring. The first exemplar shows a typical black and white spotted bovine. The second exemplar shown here is more like an aggressive bull with its red colour, but the context is clearly an ideogram in an offering formula. Many tomb scenes and models depict oxen, most of which are white with black spots and black or white horns (e.g. the tomb of Meketre TT.280 (Tiradritti 1999, 114-115)) . However, for aesthetic reasons, groups of oxen are sometimes shown with alternate contrasting red ones (e.g. the tomb of Menna TT.69 - Mon.40), but this is not a naturalistic colour of Egyptian oxen.

The head of a leopard F9 is yellow with a red outline and details. This is not naturalistic for a leopard, which is covered in dark spots. This can be seen quite clearly in depictions of priests wearing the skin of a leopard (Tiradritti 2008, 269). I would suggest, therefore, that this is really the head of a lioness. Support for this view is to be found in Vernus and Yoyotte (2005, 70).

The head and neck of a long-necked animal F10 has the appearance of some kind of totem. The red colour of the cross would seem to suggest two pieces of joined wood, as in Ex.Z11, especially in the occurrence from the same monument (Mon.31). The sign may therefore depict the head of an ox, impaled on a wooden cross. However, the meaning of the sign as a determinative for “neck" (FCD 197), "throat" (FCD 179) or "swallow" (FCD 42) might still suggest that the cross is merely a schematised neck (but why the cross-piece?).

F31, traditionally supposed to represent three foxes’ skins tied together, presents an interesting case of (mistaken?) identity. Unlike Faulkner, who simply cites Gardiner's explanation (FCD 116), the Wörterbuch prefers a "(fly-)whisk made from jackal skin" ("Wedel aus einem Schakalfell") (Wb II, 137.2). In hieroglyphs, jackal skin is always coloured black (cf. Exs. E15, E17 and F12), whereas F31 is nearly always green with a red knot. Therefore, a whisk made from plant fibre seems more plausible. All occurrences closely follow this colour scheme, although some less detailed variants do not show the knot as red. Maybe the fact that this sign is associated with lexemes for birth (msi etc.) leads to the symbolic use of green. But this would still not explain the red knot.

F32 presents several variations in colour. It is therefore unclear what exactly is represented here. Tradition identifies the oval shape as the belly of an animal (a cow?), but the colour green doesn't really fit with this. Meeks (2004, 198) suggests the foetal sack of a cow. In this case green would be a symbol of birth, growth and fertility (cf. Ex.Aa1). However, a comparison with other occurrences (Mons. 5, 25 etc.) shows that sometimes the belly is pale or even transparent. The traditional identification, therefore, seems the more likely, with green here still representing birth in the form of the cow's udder. The red tail is in shape and colour nearly always identical to the tail of the cow's skin in Ex.F29.

One frequent sign, the heart F34 , has three distinct colour schemes, all three found in the inscriptions from the tomb of Tjanuni TT.74 (Mon.32). The majority (65%) show simply a plain red heart, very much as one might expect from a naturalistic image. The next most common variant (21%) shows a red heart cut open to reveal the three chambers, which are coloured white, possibly as an indication of empty space. The third variant (14%) shows the heart itself as white, whereas the chambers are red. This latter colour scheme is difficult to reconcile with nature but other images of the heart taken from tomb decoration may provide a clue. Wall-paintings from the tomb of Sennefer (TT.96) (e.g. Hawass 2009, 40; Mekhitarian 1989, 81) show the deceased (and his cousin Amenemope) wearing two heart pendants, one white and one yellow, indicating one made of silver and one of gold, probably offerings from the king Amenhotep II whose cartouches are inscribed on some of the hearts (Hawass 2009, 41). The white colour thus probably represents silver. This interpretation is confirmed by the text accompanying the image. Variants of this colour scheme can also be seen in the decoration of the north wall of the corridor where a red (stone?) heart pendant is worn next to a white one. There appears, therefore, to be a double meaning for the heart hieroglyph, either that of a real sheep's heart, sometimes cut open to display the chambers, or as a stone or metal pendant offered by the king to a worthy noble.

The same imagery is displayed in F35 the heart and windpipe. The heart shows exactly the same colour variants and the windpipe varies between red, transparent white and green. Green could be a symbol of life and growth as the conduit of life-giving breath. It is perhaps significative that the windpipe of the similar hieroglyph F36 does not have this green colouring in any of the occurrences in the corpus, all of which show the windpipe as red or red with a white interior. The most common variant for F35 shows the heart as white with red chambers. The windpipe can be green, but most of these variants show the windpipe as white with a red outline. These variations are intriguing but at present remain without explanation

The similar sign F36 the lungs and windpipe, shows less variation than the previous sign. It is obviously more naturalistic and the colours are of no particular symbolic significance.

The signs for a length of intestine F46-F49 form a group that differ only in the direction of the folds. The meaning is identical and it is difficult to see why Gardiner wished to differentiate them, especially as all the cases are not covered (e.g. the occurrence from Mon.52). I propose, therefore, to ignore the variation in position and direction of the coils and regroup all the occurrences under the sign F46 . The colours used for F46 vary from black to white, green and blue. The Ramesside occurrence from Mon.56 also has a yellow fill between the coils. These variants appear to be attempts at naturalistic colouring and no symbolic meaning is implied.


F1 : head of ox (replaces E1 in offering formula)





OccID = 3363
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 299 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : neck red, face white with black spots

This exemplar shows a young oxes or cow's head, with naturalistic colouring. Variants show the red colour of the following exemplar. However, the offering context precludes any symbol of aggression and instead offers an aesthetically pleasing contrast.

F1 : head of ox (replaces E1 in offering formula)





OccID = 1577
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 120 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : head red, eye blue and white, horns blue

The head of this variant is red. Early occurrences use white with black spots (see previous exemplar). The eye has a white eyeball with the pupil dark blue or black, as are the horns.

F4 : forepart of lion





OccID = 1462
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 300 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head yellow with red details, mane blue, foreparts yellow, red outline

Unlike the E23 signs for a lion, the partial image of the froepart generally has a dark blue mane. Other variants do not show this contrast in colour. A naturalistic colouring would show a darker mane, but probably as red. The blue mane here may represnt divine lapis lazuli hair.

F9 : head of leopard





OccID = 2029
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 122 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow, details red

The head and neck are yellow with red outline and details. It appears to depict a lioness rather than a leopard as described by Gardiner (EG 462) (see the commentary on F9).

F10 : head and neck of long-necked animal (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 1599
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 123 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : head and horns blue outline and details, windpipe red

The outline of the head, the ears and the horns are dark blue. The neck is red. The cross-piece is much higher up the shaft and much wider than in the conventional font. The red colour of the cross would seem to suggest  two pices of joined wood,

F12 : head and neck of canine animal





OccID = 3732
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 301 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

This sign shows the head and neck of a canidae, but the neck is far too long to be that of a living creature. It is more likely to be some form of sacred emblem. The context is wsr : "strength, power" and suggests some kind of processional standard, representing one of the canine or lupine gods, such as Anubis or Wepwawet. Just as with the canines, this sign is coloured black.

F13 : horns of ox





OccID = 2278
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 126 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

The horns are yellow with a fine red outline and details. This is a naturalistic representation, unlike the following  blue exemplar (see also Ex.F16).

F13 : horns of ox





OccID = 3086
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 125 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue

The horns are blue: clearly blue and not black. It must therefore be considered whether bulls' horns were not sometimes ritually painted.

F18 : tusk of elephant (or metal spout?)





OccID = 3174
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 127 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outline red, fill white

The tusk is white with a red outline. This confirms it as a tusk or a tooth and not a metal spout. Not only is this sign associated with dentition, but metal is normally represented by blue or green (eg. the point of the harpoon in Ex.T21 or the blade of the chisel in Ex.U22). One variant from the Temple of Sety I at Abydos (Mon.59) is coloured green, which may represent a copper water spout.

F20 : tongue of ox (?)





OccID = 2280
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 128 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The tongue is red. This is a purely naturalistic colour.

F21 : ear of ox (?)





OccID = 1650
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 129 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red, outline black

The ear is red with darker horizontal lines and a black outline on two sides. This is a naturalistic image, showing clearly the contrast between the animal's black hide and the red inside of the ear. Variants show yellow instead of red and red or no outline.

F22 : hind-quarters of lion or leopard





OccID = 2335
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 130 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : yellow

The hind-quarters and tail are yellow, as are the foreparts of the lion (Ex.F4.).

F23 : foreleg of ox





OccID = 3501
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 303 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : leg red, hoof blue

The leg is red, either as the colour of the skin of the ox or as butchered meat.The hoof is dark blue (a substitute for black).

F26 : skin of a goat





OccID = 2336
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 131 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

The skin is red. This sign has been interpreted as the skin of a goat, mainly because the word Xnt, writtten using this sign, means "skin". Domesticated goats are rarely depicted in tomb scenes, so it is not clear which colours were common. The sign for a goat in Ex.E31 is also red, but much paler. Red could be a substitute for brown, a colour often found today amongst domesticated goats. A variant shows a yellow fill between the legs, indicating motion.

F29 : cow's skin pierced by an arrow





OccID = 1311
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 304 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : hide white with black spots and bottom edge blue, tail red, arrow yellow with red arrowhead and black flights

The hide, used as a target, is variegated black and white : a totally naturalistic image. Other, less detailed variants have pure white skin. The tail is red (a substitute for brown). The arrow is carefully drawn with a yellow (wooden) shaft, black feathered flights and a red arrow-head (symbolising danger or aggression?).

F30 : water-skin





OccID = 1455
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 133 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : skin white with black(?) spots, ties at both ends red

The water-skin is variegated : white with black patches. This is common in goats, which can exhibit skins of black, white and brown, all at the same time. Red could be a substitute for brown. The red appendages are probably the front and rear legs and the tail.

F31 : three foxes' skins tied together





OccID = 1494
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 134 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : skins green, knot red

The skins are green. The knot is red. These colours challenge the traditional interpretation of this sign (see the commentary on F31). It is difficult to see how they could represent foxes' skins or why the knot would be red. It seems more likely that this is some kind of plant with stems knotted together. Variants do not always show the red knot.

F32 : animal's belly showing teats and tail





OccID = 3176
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 136 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : belly green, teats blue, tail red

The belly is green, surrounded by blue teats. The tail is red.This sign shows much variation. The belly can be red, green or white, the teats red, blue or black, the tail red or blue. The significance of these colour variations is unclear (see the commentary on F32).

F34 : heart





OccID = 1447
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 137 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This sign is very common but has three variants. This exemplar (the most frequently encountered) shows a heart as seen from the outside, where the chambers are not indicated, or else a heart pendant made from some kind of red stone (see the commentary on F34).

F34 : heart





OccID = 1651
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 19 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red, white appendages and inner markings

This variant shows a cross-section of a (sheep's?) heart with the muscle coloured red. The chambers and arteries are coloured white, probably to indicate empty space (see the commentary on F34).

F34 : heart





OccID = 2073
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 18 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : white with red markings

This variant is the opposite of the previous exemplar, in that the muscle is white and the chambers are red. This does not reflect naturalistic colouring. However, there does appear to be some symbolic meaning behind the two contrasting colour schemes (see the commentary on F34).

F35 : heart and windpipe





OccID = 2475
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 139 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : heart red, windpipe green

This all red heart, like the first exemplar of  F34, is probably a naturalistic image of a whole heart. The windpipe or trachaea is green. This may be an attempt at reproducing the colour of the muscle and cartilage from which it is made.

F35 : heart and windpipe





OccID = 3170
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 141 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : heart red, markings white, windpipe outline red, fill white

 In this exemplar, the heart shows the red cross-section with white, empty chambers. The windpipe is white with a red outline, probably indicating the hollow interior.

F35 : heart and windpipe





OccID = 1223
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 140 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : lower part white with red markings, upper part green

This exemplar shows the heart as white with red chambers, the most common variant for this sign. The windpipe is green or blue.

F36 : lungs and windpipe





OccID = 1564
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 142 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : lungs white or yellow with blue horizontal lines, windpipe red

Unlike many of the samples of the previous sign F35, the windpipe in this hieroglyph is red or red with a white fill. The lungs are white or transparent, in this case with horizontal blue striations. This appears to be a more naturalistic representation than that of F35, with the transparency of the lungs indicating the organ filled with air.

F39 : backbone with spinal cord issuing from it





OccID = 1314
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 305 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : bones red, spinal cord white

The vertebrae are red and the spinal cord which issues from one end  is white. This is a naturalistic image. Variants show the cord as red and in one case as a red loop.

F40 : portion of backbone with spinal cord issuing from both ends





OccID = 1895
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 144 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : cord and vertebrae red, centre (marrow?) white

This double-ended spinal cord and backbone is anatomically correct. Variants also show the spinal cord as white. The white patches at the base of the verterbrae are exactly what can be observed when butchering an ovine or bovine carcase. However, the removal of vertebrae from both ends, while leaving the spinal cord would be difficult. It is likely that the depiction of only four vertebrae is a "short-hand" way of depicting the whole backbone.

F42 : rib





OccID = 3596
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 343 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This sign, a rib, is red. It is confused here with N11 a crescent moon (with three faded dots beneath), but the context is spr "to reach" (FCD 223).

F44 : leg bone with adjoining meat





OccID = 2339
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 145 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : bone pink, meat red

This sign is of a joint of meat with the bone still in place. This is a purely naturalistic representation, with red meat and a pale pinkish bone. A variant shows meat and bone as red, with a black outline.

F46 : intestine





OccID = 1906
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 306 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : black

This sign shows a length of(sheep's?) intestine and is variously coloured black, white, green or blue : all attempts at naturalistic colouring. One Ramessside occurrence (Mon.56) has a yellow fill betweeen the folds.

F51 : piece of flesh





OccID = 3897
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 308 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This gobbet of flesh is a naturalistic red as are all variants.

F178 : combination of F 22 and R 12 (rear part of lion and standard)





OccID = 1834
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 148 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : rear of lion yellow, standard black with red cloth

The hind-quarters of the lion are yellow, as in the sign F22. The standard is black which differs from the more usual red, indicating wood (see Ex.R12). The signification of the black used here is unclear. Pieces of red cloth hang from the cross-piece.

Group G : Birds

Group G contains fifty-seven signs of which twenty-nine (51%) possess database occurrences, all with images. When examining Gardiner’s extensive list of bird hieroglyphs (EG 545), one might be forgiven for thinking that many of these signs are found frequently in monumental or funerary inscriptions. In fact, this is not the case. Apart from the frequent use of G1, G5, G17, G36, G39 and G43, all with more than ten database occurrences, eleven signs appear only once in the corpus.

The Egyptians were remarkable observers of nature, no more so than in their many images of bird life. Probably the variety and beauty of bird plumage inspired the artists to transcend the rigidity of conventional representation and to produce some of the most beautiful painted scenes to be found in the ancient world (e.g. Tiradritti 1999, 60; Tiradritti 2008, 275). This desire for naturalistic accuracy in wall paintings of birds was carried over into the miniature world of polychrome hieroglyphs. Despite the small size and limited palette available to the scribe-painters, some occurrences show a remarkable level of detail and accuracy.

This group displays mostly naturalistic imagery. Consequently, an attempt has been made to correlate the different occurrences with photographic and taxonomic data obtained from several different sources:
• Houlihan (2001) provides a summary introduction to bird species as observed in Egyptian iconography.
• Houlihan (1986) is still the most complete and scientific work on the portrayal of birds in Ancient Egypt.
• Bailleul-LeSuer (2012) is the extended catalogue of an exhibition held at the Oriental Institute of Chicago and provides an up-to-date collection of articles concerning all aspects of avian life in Ancient Egypt including chapters on symbolism and mythology. There is also in this work an interesting contribution by Wyatt (2012) on the identification of species from the point of view of an ornithologist. He claims that several species could be represented by one hieroglyph and cites the example of the swallow G36, represented on the south and east wall of the tomb of Baqet III at Beni-Hassan by at least four different species (Wyatt 2012, 87). This observation is confirmed in several occurrences in the database, where more than one species or sub-species is portrayed by one particular hieroglyph (e.g. the falcon G5 or the vulture G14).
• Avibase is an online database, providing taxonomic and photographic data concerning present day living species (www.avibase.bsc-eoc.org).

The style used for bird hieroglyphs falls into one of three categories:
1. Naturalistic.
Hieroglyphs correspond accurately to a particular species. Examples are to be found in several occurrences of the barn-owl G17 and the pintail G39.
2. Semi-naturalistic.
An otherwise accurate image of a particular species has blue wings. This metaphorical use of blue for the wings probably symbolises the association of birds with the sky (in the same way that desert animals such as the hare (E34) are often coloured like sand: yellow with dark spots). Bird examples are the vulture G1 and the ibis G25.
3. Metaphorical.
Completely non-naturalistic colouring (usually red) is used for the entire bird. Examples are the sparrow G37 and the cormorant G35. The sparrow was considered to be the embodiment of evil and is therefore coloured red to indicate “inferiority, danger, chaos, aggression” (Goldwasser 2002, 20; David 2000). The cormorant’s red colour probably indicates a combination of modern-day egyptological mis-identification (this bird is more likely to be an African darter (Houlihan 1986, 9)) and scribal inaccuracy due to the exotic nature of the species (see Ex. G35).

For the naturalistic and semi-naturalistic categories, the exact assignation of a species to an exemplar is not always straightforward. Minor inaccuracies in the use of colours can prevent precise identification. However, given the limited palette available to the scribe-painters as well as the reduced size of many of the exemplars, the level of accuracy achieved is quite remarkable.

One of the devices used by the scribe-painters gives an insight into the way the Ancient Egyptians viewed colours. Several exemplars show that the use of colour to portray texture was just as important as the simple reproduction of surface colour. For instance in Ex. G21 , the guinea-fowl, the scribe-painter has resorted to a mixture of blue, black and green to represent the iridescent, glossy sheen of the bird’s plumage. The same insistence on graphic accuracy can be seen in Ex. G47, the duckling, where the “goose bumps” of the bird’s naked skin have been skilfully reproduced by stippling the pink surface with small red dots.

The Dynasty IV exemplar of G7 a falcon on a standard R12 shows some interesting detail, absent from later representations of similar cult statues. The falcon is most likely to be a cult figure as the colour of the bird and the plinth on which it stands suggest stone. The standard itself is red, representing wood. There appears to be a platform at the front, very similar to O31 the hieroglyph for a door with its even wooden slats. On top of the platform is an oval object painted white which could be an ostrich egg (cf. Ex.H8).

A particularly interesting sign is G32 a heron on a perch. This composite sign shows a heron in a typical attitude as it fishes from a vantage-point, in this case from what appears to be some sort of man-made, wooden post. The shape of the post, especially in the occurrence from the tomb of Rekhmire (TT.100, Mon.39) is very similar to the unclassified sign Aa21, described by Gardiner as a carpenter’s tool (EG 542). The colour red, used for the post, suggests something made of wood. For a full discussion of this object, see the commentary on Ex. Aa21.


G1 : Egyptian vulture





OccID = 3183
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 150 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head red, eye and beak black, wing blue with outline black, underparts white with outline red, feet red

This sign shows the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) (Houlihan 1986, 39-40).This particular exemplar illustrates what could be called a semi-naturalistic style. The head is yellow, as is the beak which has a black or dark blue tip. The breast and tail are white and the feet are outlined in red. This much corresponds to the natural colours of the Egyptian vulture. However, the wings are in reality white with black tips, unlike the deep blue seen here. This blue probably symbolises the bird's nature as a creature of the sky and can be seen in other exemplars in this group (e.g. Ex.G17). Variants show many diffferent colours, from virtually all white, through all yellow to all blue.

G2 : two vultures G1





OccID = 1439
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 310 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : head and beak yellow with red spots, breast and wing white, legs yellow, red outline

This sign shows two Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) (Houlihan 1986, 39-40) side by side.The birds are coloured more naturalistically than most occurrences of G1. The white of the back and wings is respected. A variant from Mon.40 shows traces of black on the wing tips.

G3 : combination of G1 and U1





OccID = 2295
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 152 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : sickle green (?), vulture blue with head and feet yellow

This sign shows an Egyptian vulture  (Neophron percnopterus) (Houlihan 1986, 39-40) combined with an agricultural tool: the sickle (U1). The head and feet of the bird are yellow and the breast is white. This version of the vulture has a blue back and wing feathers, as in the first Ex.G1, symbolising the bird's nature as a creature of the sky. The style is therefore semi-naturalistic. The sickle is probably faded green by association with the growth and fertility which is the result of agricultural activity (see Ex.U1). A variant (Mon.57) shows yellow, both for the bird and for the sickle.

G4 : long legged buzzard





OccID = 3321
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 153 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : beak, feet and outline red, body (darkened) yellow

This sign shows the Long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus) (Houlihan 1986, 44); This attempt at naturalistic colouring is deep yellow with a red outline and details. In reality, the buzzard is usually orange-tinted brown, with a red tail, but brown as such was not used by the painters of hieroglyphs, even at this late period, so dark yellow is a close approximation. The only innaccuracy is the yellow/red appendage hanging from the throat, which is not found on this species. Maybe it is just a device enabling the reader to distinguish this sign from that of G1 with which it was sometimes confused (Houlihan 1986, 44).

G5 : falcon





OccID = 1253
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 154 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green back with red tip to tail, white breast, black and white face, yellow leg, red feet

The "Horus falcon" (Falco sp.) shown here could be any one of four species found in modern Egypt (Houlihan 1986, 46-49). This exemplar is naturalistic. The green tint of the wings, the red tip of the tail and the red spot above the eye are all markers of the African subspecies of Lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus) (Kozloff 2012, 59-60). The yellow orbital eye mark can also be clearly seen in this exemplar. This is more distinct than in the similar Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and provides further evidence for the identification. The breast, spotted brown, and pale leggings have been rendered by red marks on yellow and white respectively. The feet are naturally brown, shown here as yellow and  red. Considering the variations seen in what appear to be naturalistic occurrences, it is safer to conclude that this sign probably represents any one of the falcon species: F. eleonorae, F. subbuteo, F. biarmicus or F. peregrinus.

G7 : falcon of Horus on the standard R12





OccID = 3442
Monument : Iunu G4150
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 312 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : falcon yellow, standard upper red, lower yellow, appendage white

This sign shows the "Horus falcon" (Houlihan 1986, 46-49) perched on a standard (R12). This early exemplar has the falcon coloured yellow with a pale cheek. The standard shows some interesting detail, absent from more recent occurrences of R12.The bird is perched on a small raised platform coloured yellow. The standard itself has a red forward-facing structure, similar to representations of doors (cf. Ex.O31). The white object placed on this platform could be an ostrich egg.

G7A : falcon with flagellum (G6) on standard (R12)





OccID = 3047
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 155 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face and breast pale (faded?), head and wing green, tip of tail red, feet yellow, flagellum yellow, standard red

This sign shows the "Horus falcon" (Houlihan 1986, 46-49) bearing a flagellum and perched on a standard (R12), the common "vehicle" of the gods. This is another example of naturalistic colouring as in Ex.G5. The green-blue head, wings and tail of the falcon have faded, as this exemplar is exposed to daylight, but the image is comparable to Ex.G5. The flabellum is yellow, perhaps in this case representing gold or gilded wood. The standard is red, representing wood (see Ex.R12).

G8 : falcon of Horus on the sign for gold S12





OccID = 2714
Monument : Deir el-Bahri
Monument type : Funerary temple
Localisation or provenance : Deir el-Bahri
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut
Approximate date : 1473 - 1458
ExemplarID = 313 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : falcon green, head and breast white, tail tips and feet red, collar blue, green, red, green, blue, knots blue and red, string red

This highly detailed exemplar comes from a monumental inscription and reflects the intricate care given to the best of such inscriptions. The naturalistic colouring is the same as in Ex.G5 and identifies the bird as the African subspecies of Lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus) (Kozloff 2012, 59-60). The bird stands on a magnificent, multilayered, bejewlled collar, symbolising gold. In this case, however, gold appears to have taken second place to the multiple threads of turquoise and red jewels.

G9 : falcon of Horus bearing the sun N5 on head





OccID = 3178
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 156 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : falcon face white, markings black, wing blue, tail green, underparts white, feet white with outline red, sun disk red , outer ring white, horizontal (and diagonal) bars red

This sign group shows the "Horus falcon" (Houlihan 1986, 46-49) bearing the sun disk (N5) on its head, accompanied by two horizontal bars (N19) and two diagonal strokes (Z4). As in Exs.G5, G7A and.G8, this exemplar displays the same naturalistic colouring. The sun disk is red with a pale ring, typical of the sign (see Ex.N5). The two horizontal bars (N19) are read as Axty : the nisbe meaning "he of the horizon". As a shorthand way of twice writing the sign for the sun rising over the horizon (N27), the red colour used here probably represents the sandy edge of the desert (see Ex.N27). The two slanting bars, indicating the dual, are usually painted black or dark blue (see Ex.Z4) as are most of the strokes derived from hieratic. However, in this case the scribe-painter, for reasons of simplicity, has applied the same colour red used for the horizontal bars.

G14 : vulture





OccID = 2089
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 188 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head and neck white, wing blue, tail blue with red tip, breast red, legs white with black stripes, feet black

This sign shows the Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) (Houlihan 1986, 40-41). In this exemplar, the wings and back are dark slate blue, the breast is red (as a substitute for brown), the leggings are white with red bars and the feet are black. The neck and face are white and the lower jaw red. This red could indicate the blood seen around the massive bill of the bird when feeding on a carcase. The scribe-painter has also applied some brushstrokes of red to the grey-blue back and wings giving a more natural variegated appearance - a rarely used technique for hieroglyphs. This, therefore, is a totally naturalistic exemplar. However, other occurrences show some variation, sometimes inexplicable (e.g. the green back of the occurrence from KV.57 - Mon.25). This may be because the sign can also show the Lappet-faced vulture (Aegypius tracheliotus) (Houlihan 1986, 41-43). The main difference between the two birds is the bald head of the Lappet-faced and its much larger size.  

G14* : vulture on basket





OccID = 1317
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 314 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : feathers white, inner detail blue, tip of tail blue, basket green

This sign shows the Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) (Houlihan 1986, 40-41) G14 perched on the basket V30. The vulture lacks detailed colouring, with just the tail feathers and some markings in blue on a white background. The basket is pale green with darker cross-hatching, showing it to be made of woven rushes.

G16 : vulture goddess Nekhbet and cobra goddess Edjo on baskets V30





OccID = 2713
Monument : Deir el-Bahri
Monument type : Funerary temple
Localisation or provenance : Deir el-Bahri
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut
Approximate date : 1473 - 1458
ExemplarID = 315 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : vulture head white, back blue, wing-tip green, breast red, underparts white, legs blue, cobra yellow, ventral stripe white, baskets green

This composite and detailed sign shows the vulture goddess Nekhbet and the cobra goddess Edjo on two baskets V30. The vulture has a white face and underparts. The breast is red, the back is blue and the wingtips are green. The cobra is red with a white ventral stipe. The vulture is naturalistic, but the cobra is probably red as a metaphor for danger and aggression. The two baskets are green, indicating woven rushes.

G17 : owl





OccID = 2494
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 158 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face and breast white, markings and outlines red, top of head, wing and feet yellow

This sign shows the Barn owl (Tyto alba) (Houlihan 1986, 108-110). The top of the head, wings and feet are yellow. The wing has small red dots indicating variegated yellow/brown plumage. The face, shoulder and breast are white. This, therefore, is an accurate naturalistic image. However, it is unusual in being the only bird hieroglyph to have its face shown fully frontally. This posture is typical of the owl and gives a real sense of movement as it brings the creature to life.  

G17 : owl





OccID = 1799
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 159 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face white, underparts speckled white, feathers blue, feet yellow

This variant of the Barn owl (Tyto alba) (Houlihan 1986, 108-110) shows the same white face, shoulder, breast and lower tail, with red dots indicating variegated plumage. The feet are red. However, instead of the naturalistic yellow top of head and wings, the scribe-painter has used blue. This is an obvious example of the "sky creature" metaphor (see Ex.G 1). This image, therefore, can be classed as semi-naturalistic. All of these semi-naturalistic occurrences date from the Third Intermediate and Late Periods.

G20 : combination of G17 and D36 (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 1524
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 160 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : owl yellow, blue and red as G 17, arm red as D 36

This composite sign shows the Barn owl (Tyto alba) (Houlihan 1986, 108-110) together with the arm D36. As in the previous variant of G17, the owl has a pale dotted face, shoulder and breast, red feet and a blue top of head and wings. This is another semi-naturalistic image using the "sky creature" metaphor. The arm, as in almost all occurrences of D36, is red. This exemplar shows the arm behind the owl, unlike the standard typographic hieroglyph.

G21 : guinea-fowl





OccID = 3181
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 161 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : face, body and wing blue, feet and appendages black, tail and lower wing green

This sign shows the Helmetted guineafowl (Numida meleagris) (Houlihan 1986, 82-83). The plumage is naturally spotted and iridescent,  rendered here by a mixture of blue, black and green. The face is correctly coloured blue. However, there are certain inaccuracies which suggest that the scribe-painter was unfamiliar with the bird. The horned helmet does not have two adjacent spikes. The wattle, which is naturally red, is here attached to the breast instead of to the lower jaw. It is also far too large in this image. The shape of the body is also poorly rendered as the guineafowl is rounded with a horizontal stance, more like a turkey. However, this inaccuracy is very common in hieroglyphs and various unsuccessful attempts have been made to assign other species to this sign (Houlihan 1986, 83). It is possible that the Helmetted guineafowl was never a common resident in Egypt, which could explain the unusually poor observation.

G25 : crested ibis





OccID = 3189
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 162 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : face and throat green, beak black, crest red, wing blue, underparts white with outline red, feet black

The African sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) (Houlihan 1986, 31-32; Wyatt 2010, 83) is the usual identification of the ancient Egyptian ibis. However, the colours used for this exemplar do not correspond to the species, which has no crest. Wyatt and Houlihan suggest the Northern bald ibis, otherwise known as the Hermit ibis (Geronticus eremita) which does have a crest, but again this species has no white front as in this exemplar. The blue wings, shown here, could either be an attempt at showing the greenish iridescence of the wings or else be another example of the "sky creature" metaphor (see Ex.G1). Early variants show the bird as all red. The exact identification remains unclear.

G26 : sacred ibis on the standard R12





OccID = 1663
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 163 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : white wings and breast, neck red, face green, beak tail and feet black, outline red, standard red

The bird in this exemplar is the African sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) (Houlihan 1986, 28-30). It has a green face and dark bill, a white body and wings, black feet and a black rump. This is an accurate, naturalistic image. The standard is red, representing wood, with a white appendage at the front (see Ex.R12).

G29 : jabiru





OccID = 3187
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 164 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : head white with outline black, underparts white with outline red, back blue with outline black, feet red

Jabiru is a term no longer used by ornithologists except to indicate a South American stork (Jabiru mycteria) (Houlihan 1986, 177, note 119).The sign G29 is in fact the Saddlebill stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) (Houlihan 1986, 23-25). It has a dark head, red and black bill, white breast, red legs and iridescent green/black wings. This exemplar appears, therefore, to be naturalistic, the blue used for the wings being a substitute for grey-green.

G30 : three jabirus





OccID = 2111
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 165 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : heads and wings green, breasts white with red outline, legs and chest appendages black, fill white

Again, the term Jabiru is incorrect (see Ex.G29). This sign shows three Saddlebill storks (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) (Houlihan 1986, 23-25; fig.30).These exemplars are naturalistic (see Ex.G29). The colour scheme is slightly simplified but the dark head, neck and wings are dark green as in the natural green/black iridescent plumage. To improve the legibility of the hieroglyph, the scribe-painter has added a white fill between the necks of the birds as well as between their legs. This produces an impresssion of depth and movement.

G31 : heron





OccID = 3725
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 316 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outline blue, head red, beak, crest and wing blue, breast and legs white (colourless)

This somewhat naive exemplar shows the Grey heron (Ardea cinerea) (Houlihan 1986, 13-16). The head and breast are white. The crown is red. The crest is dark blue. The back and wings are blue-grey. The legs are crudely drawn in blue-black outline.

G32 : heron on a perch





OccID = 3190
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 166 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : face and underparts white with outline red, wing blue, top of head and back outline black, feet black, perch base and vertical red, triangle sides black

This exemplar shows the Grey heron (Ardea cinerea) (Houlihan 1986, 13-16). The head and breast are white. The bill is red. The crown is black. The back and wings are blue-grey, trimmed with black. The legs are in reality brown but have been rendered here by black.This is an accurate, naturalistic image. The perch has a red base and red upright, with two black lines forming an exterior triangle. For a tentative identification of this structure, see the group commentaries on G32 and Aa21.

G35 : cormorant





OccID = 2907
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 167 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

The Cormorant (Phalocrocorax sp.) belongs to a family of some 40 species none of which is red, unlike all the Occurrences of G35. Most cormorants are in fact black. This clearly points to a metaphorical signification. Red in this case normally signifies "danger, aggression" (e.g. Exs.G37; I4). However, it is difficult to find such a connection here as the hieroglyph G35 (aq) is used exclusively in words for "enter" or "leave" (Wb.I, 230-232; FCD, 49-50). A more likely explanation would seem to be that we have here a mis-identification. It appears, in fact, to be an African Darter (Anhinga rufa) (Houlihan 1986, 9). This bird has a red head and breast, and its shape, especially the neck and tail, better corresponds to the hieroglyph. The lack of accuracy in the colouring could be due to the exotic nature of the bird, today confined to sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. It also swims with its entire body submerged, exposing only the red head and neck.  

G36 : swallow or martin (swallow tail)





OccID = 60
Monument : Haremheb TT.78
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1352
ExemplarID = 168 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green-blue with white markings and red bill and feet

This exemplar shows the House martin (Delichon urbica) (Houlihan 1986, 124-125). The blue-green head, back, wing and tail and the white breast and throat are all indicative of this species. The tail is also forked, but not as long as that of the swallow (see variant).

G36 : swallow or martin (swallow tail)





OccID = 1506
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 189 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head and legs red, body and wing blue, tail green

This variant exemplar of G36 shows a Swallow (Hirunda rustica) (Houlihan 1986, 122-124) rather than the House martin of the previous exemplar.The red face and long tail distinguish it from the martin. In fact the scribe-painter has deliberately lengthened the tail, blurring the fork in the process, but producing an aesthetically pleasing quadrat. This is a good example of one hieroglyph representing different species.

G37 : sparrow (rounded tail)





OccID = 3180
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 169 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This sign shows the House sparrow (Passer domesticus) (Houlihan 1986, 136-137). There has been no attempt at naturalism, as the House sparrow has a variegated plumage consisting of black, white, grey and brown. This, therefore, is a clear use of metaphor. The sparrow, for the Egyptians, was a symbol for "evil" or "bad" (David 2000), probably due to the major risk that it poses to farmers by eating great quantities of grain (Houlihan 1986, 137). As such a potent symbol, the hieroglyph G37 has been painted red in order to signal "danger".

G38 : white-fronted goose





OccID = 1804
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 172 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : head black, back blue, underparts white, legs red

Although many different goose species and sub-species can be seen in wall paintings such as those from the Dynasty IV mastaba of Atet at Meidum (Tiradritti 2008, 102-104), the White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) (Houlihan 1986, 57-59) is the one most pictured in hieroglyphs, although it is often difficult to distinguish between the sub-species and Houlihan (1986,59) prefers to limit  the identification to an "Anser goose". The head in this exemplar is black (a substitute for grey?), the breast is characteristically white and the back, wings and tail are blue either as a substitute for dark grey, or as a "sky creature" metaphor. There is also frequent confusion in polychrome inscriptions with the Pintail (G39) (e.g. The occurrence of G38 in Mon.31 - Khonsou-Tefnakht, where G39 is written mistakenly in the name of Geb).

G39 : pintail duck





OccID = 2032
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 171 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head and rump red, beak, eye, wings and feet blue, back yellow with blue markings, breast white, fill between feet white

This sign shows the Pintail (Anas acuta) (Houlihan 1986, 71-73). It has a red head and tail, a distinctive barred back, dark wings and a white breast. There is also a white fill between the legs giving the impression of forward movement. The scribe-painters often confused the Pintail with the goose G38 substituting one for the other in polychrome inscriptions (see Ex.G38).

G40 : pintail duck flying





OccID = 3186
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 173 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head, back and upper wing blue, lower wing and tail green, underparts white with outline red, feet black

This sign shows a Pintail (Anas acuta) (Houlihan 1986, 71-73) taking off. The scribe-painter has taken care to clearly show the characteristic paddle-shaped "pintail", only visible during flight. The position of the legs also shows that the bird is taking off, not yet in full flight when the legs are outstretched behind. The pale breast is clearly marked but the rest of the bird has been coloured blue, probably as a "sky creature" metaphor, as in most of the bird hieroglyphs from this monument. Variants show a red head, and wings of yellow or red. This sign, together with G41, are the only ones in the group that show the bird flying. All the others are profile views of the birds walking or at rest.

G40 : pintail duck flying





OccID = 1666
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 317 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : head and back blue, breast white, wings and tail yellow with black markings, feet black

This exemplar, a variant of G40, shows the more naturalistic colours of the  Pintail (Anas acuta) (Houlihan 1986, 71-73). The wings and tail are yellow with black markings, unlike the metaphorical blue of the previous exemplar.

G41 : pintail duck alighting





OccID = 1807
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 174 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : head red, feathers blue, underparts white

This sign shows a Pintail (Anas acuta) (Houlihan 1986, 71-73) alighting. The head is red, the back and wings dark with paler tips and the breast is pale. The characteristic "pintail", visible during flight is clearly marked.Unlike in the typographic version of the sign, one wing is bent down, producing a very dynamic image, typical of the bird as it comes in to land, wings flapping. This sign, together with G40, are the only ones in the group that show the bird flying. All the others are profile views of the birds walking or at rest.  

G42 : fatted duck or widgeon?





OccID = 3185
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 176 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outline red, eye black, underparts white, wing black markings, feet black

This sign shows the Eurasian widgeon (Anas penelope) (Houlihan 1986, 69-70). This exemplar appears to be a female as it has a pale breast, red (brown) head and wings, and black markings on the back and tail. Male widgeons have a much redder head and slate-blue plumage (see variant G42).

G42 : fatted duck or widgeon?





OccID = 1538
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 175 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : head red, beak blue, wing blue, tail green, breast yellow with blue spots, feet red, claws blue

This exemplar of the Eurasian widgeon (Anas penelope) (Houlihan 1986, 69-70) appears to be a male. The head is redder than that of the female pictured in the previous exemplar of G42. The breast is also pale but in this exemplar, it is dotted with blue spots which are not found naturally in the wigeon's plumage. The natural colour of the back and wings is slate grey, which could have been rendered by the blue seen here. However, several other bird hieroglyphs from this monument also have blue backs and wings, as a metaphor for a "sky creature" (e.g. G1, G17, G20, G25).

G43 : quail chick





OccID = 1468
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 177 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : body yellow, eye, beak and legs red

This sign shows a Common quail chick (Coturnix coturnix) (Houlihan 1986, 74-78). One of the most ubiquitous bird hieroglyphs, found in 70% of the inscriptions in the database, it is also one of the most consistently coloured. Most occurrences are either plain yellow, as in this exemplar or yellow with lines or dots of red or blue to give more texture to the young bird's feathers (see variant). Even this pure yellow exemplar has been outlined in red and the eye, beak and feet have also been detailed in this way. This is an accurate naturalistic image.

G43 : quail chick





OccID = 1504
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 318 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow with black details, green spots on breast, legs red

This variant of G43, a Common quail chick (Coturnix coturnix) (Houlihan 1986, 74-78), shows a more detailed occurrence, with black and green spots and wing markings. Other variants have white fill between the legs giving the impression of forward movement.

G44 : two quail chicks G43





OccID = 2347
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 178 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : body yellow, beak, eye and legs red

This exemplar shows two Common quail chicks (Coturnix coturnix) (Houlihan 1986, 74-78) side by side. As in G43, the image is entirely naturalistic, with yellow bodies and red beaks, eyes and feet.

G45 : combination of quail chick G43 and arm D36





OccID = 3052
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 179 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : chick yellow with red feet, arm red

This sign shows a Common quail chick (Coturnix coturnix) (Houlihan 1986, 74-78)  together with the arm D36 crossing in front of the bird (see also Ex.G20). The colouring is again naturalistic (see Ex.G43) with a yellow body and red feet (other details have faded). The arm is red, as in all occurrences of D36.

G47 : duckling





OccID = 1668
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 180 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : pale red, outline red and black, feet black

This sign shows a newborn duckling. The only ducks featured in Houlihan are the Tufted duck (Aythya fuligula) (1986, 74) and the Pintail (Anas acuta) (1986, 71-73), but assigning this sign to any particular species is difficult. The duckling is pink with the legs and outline in black. Pink is extremely rare in hieroglyphs and this is one of the few signs to be regularly coloured in this way. In fact this is a naturalistic image showing a new-born duckling before the growth of any feathers. The rough texture of the skin has also been skilfully rendered by some small red dots covering the body. Variants show a yellow body instead of pink.

G54 : trussed goose or duck





OccID = 2349
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 181 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : body yellow, head red

This sign is the only one in Group G to show a dead bird. Obviously, this is a bird destined for the table, as it has been trimmed and plucked. The red head, clearly visible in this exemplar would suggest that this is a Pintail (Anas acuta) (Houlihan 1986, 71-73) (see Ex.G39).

Group H : Parts of Birds

This small group, containing only eight signs in Gardiner, has occurrences for three of them (38%) : H1, H6 and H8.

H8 represents an egg, probably that of the ostrich or of the goose. The egg is coloured white or yellow but there appears to be no difference in meaning or symbolism, as the occurrences from Mon.25 (Horemheb KV57) show. In these inscriptions, both white and yellow variants are used indiscriminately as the feminine determinative of the goddess Isis. Whether ostrich flesh or ostrich eggs were eaten remains unknown, but empty ostrich eggs were certainly prized as vessels from as early as pre-dynastic times (Bailleul-LeSuer 2012, 132; Phillips 2000, 332-333)). The goose egg was believed to be the cosmic egg from whence arose the sun-god at the moment of creation and the ostrich egg could also adopt the same symbolism (Bailleul-LeSuer 2012, 132).


H1 : head of pintail duck G39





OccID = 1576
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 182 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : head red, beak and neck blue, eye blue and white

This sign shows the head and neck of a Pintail (Anas acuta) (Houlihan 1986, 71-73). The red head and dark blue neck and beak confirm the identification (see Ex.G39). The eye has been carefully picked out with a transparent (white) eyeball and a dark blue iris. This is a naturalistic image. A variant is alll yellow, probably denying the importance of a particular species..

H6 : feather





OccID = 2097
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 183 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : stem yellow with red outline, feathers white with black tips

This sign probably shows the feather of an Ostrich (Struthio camelus) (Houlihan 1986, 1-5). Ostriches were hunted at least as far back as the Naqada I period (c.4000-3500 BCE) in the deserts of Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia (Houlihan 1986, 3) especially for their feathers and their eggs (see Ex.H7). This exemplar has a yellow quill and white plume, edged in black. The weight of an ostrich feather causes the plume to fold over, giving the characteristic bulge seen at the top. This is a naturalistic image.

H6 : feather





OccID = 1877
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 184 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : quill yellow, feathers green

This variant of the Ostrich feather (H6) also has a yellow quill, but the plume is green. This probably represents the dark, indistinct colour often found in ostrich feathers. These are sometimes grey, a colour not found in hieroglyphs, so green is maybe in this case a substitution. There is also the possibility that the scribe-painter wished to show the underlying sheen of the black feathers found frequently on the ostrich and used green to produce this effect (Wyatt 2012, 87).

H8 : egg





OccID = 1198
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 187 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : white

This sign shows an egg, prossibly that of an Ostrich (Struthio camelus) (Houlihan 1986, 1-5) or of a Goose  (Anser albifrons) (Houlihan 1986, 57-59). Ostrich eggs and goose eggs are generally creamy coloured, rendered by the scribe-painters as white (this exemplar) or yellow (see variant).

H8 : egg





OccID = 1199
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 186 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow

This variant exemplar shows the ostrich or goose egg, but painted yellow. This is probably a way of rendering the creamy colour usually found for these birds' eggs. However this variant is a rare case of the same sign being coloured differently on the same monument. Either different scribe-painters decorated different inscriptions in the same tomb (in this case Horemheb KV.57), or the same scribe decided to introduce some variation. In any case, the context is identical (the feminine determinative in the name of Isis - Ast).

Group I : Amphibious Animals, Reptiles etc.

Group I is well represented in the database. Sixteen out of nineteen signs (84%) have at least one occurrence and eleven possess coloured images. The group contains several very common signs such as the horned viper I9 and the cobra I10 as well as several unusual ones such as the tadpole I8, the frog I7A, sitting on or in a basket and the freshwater turtle I2. The unique occurrence of I2 recorded here is somewhat amusing as it has six legs. Presumably the scribe- painter had never seen one in the flesh or else he mistook the hieroglyph for some kind of insect. However, in this case, the context is clear : Styw - a tortoise (FCD 273).

The crocodile I3 presents an interesting example of colour symbolism. Early Dynasty III occurrences use yellow but the symbolism is unclear. Most later occurrences are dark green or black which are a good approximation to naturalistic dark grey-bronze However, one occurrence from the tomb of Rekhmire (Mon.39 - TT.100) is red, symbolising the dangerous and aggressive nature of the Nile crocodile: an apex predator. The same red can be seen in the exemplar I4 which shows the crocodile god Sobek on top of a shrine. The face of the god is golden, as is usual for gods’ flesh. The body is bright red, either as a symbol of danger and aggression, or as a naturalistic portrayal of a prestigious red cloth, draped over the statue of the god.

The crocodile skin I6 is black in the only database occurrence (which has no coloured image, only a description). Not only is this a fair approximation to the natural colour, but it is also the sign for a common colour term, translated as “black” - km (FCD 286, Wb V, 122-124). This is the same black referred to when describing the alluvium left behind when the Nile flood recedes and which gives rise to the common name given by the Egyptians to their habitat : kmt “the black (land)”. It should be noted that this black silt is often coloured dark blue when used to indicate mud-brick (e.g.. the house O1), as are the ripples of water N35 which are sometimes black and sometimes dark blue. So km (dark blue or black) is a good colour to use for a crocodile’s dark grey-bronze skin.


I2 : freshwater turtle





OccID = 3840
Monument : Ta-ouseret-em-per-nesou (aka Unnefer).
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Bab el-Gasus
Period : Dynasty XXI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 1069 - 945
ExemplarID = 319 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : blue, legs green

This unusual sign is supposed to represent a freshwater turtle, or tortoise. The scribe-painter seems never to have seen one in reality as he has shown it to have six legs (the seventh appendage represents the head and neck)! The appendages are all green, a substitute for yellow on these yellow background coffins (see Diachrony). The shell is blue. Although the sign is badly drawn, the identification as I2 is assured by the context : Styw - a tortoise (FCD 273).

I3 : crocodile





OccID = 1526
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 191 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green (slightly paler on belly), blue details and spines on back and tail

This sign shows the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). The animal's hide is quite difficult to render accurately with only the limited palette available to the scribe-painters. Apart from the pale belly, invisible in this image, the overall colour is a kind of grey-bronze, illustrated here as dark green with darker blue spines. This is, therefore, a naturalistic image. Despite the crocodile being an extremely aggressive apex predator, no use of symbolic red has been used here to depict it.

I3 : crocodile





OccID = 2350
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 192 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : faded red? (two similar occurrences)

This variant of I3 also shows a Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), this time symbolically coloured red. The colour appears faded here, but another occurrence from the same monument confirms it as red. This metaphor for aggression and danger is clearly the symbol that red here seeks to convey.

I4 : image of a crocodile on a shrine





OccID = 1458
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 193 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : crocodile red with yellow snout, shrine white with red door and red details on cornice

This sign shows the statue of a Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) perched on top of a shrine.This is an example of the representation of a container (the shrine) and its contents (the statue) (see Schäfer 1974, 117, fig.81). The statue of the god Sobek is red with a golden yellow head. The head is probably gilded, whereas the body is painted red, symbolising the aggressive and dangerous nature of the crocodile. The shrine itself is white, either representing stone or plastered mud-brick. The door is red, representing wood.

I7* : combination of frog I7 on basket V30





OccID = 190
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 320 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow (or green?), red markings, black eye, basket blue(?)

This detailed image of a frog on (or in) a basket is coloured a naturalistic yellow-green with dark red spots and a black eye. The underbelly is pale. The basket is probably blue.The animal's colouring is close to reality and reflects the careful detailing used by the scribe-painters at this early date (Dynasty IV).

I9 : horned viper





OccID = 1672
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 194 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : yellow, belly white, outline and details red and black, spots on back red, horns black

This sign shows the Horned viper (Cerastes cerastes). There are several common names for this species but the most relevant here are the Saharan or North African horned viper. In the context of ancient Egypt, the name "asp" is often used, but the identification of I9 with vipera aspis (Vernus and Yoyotte 2005, 293) is erroneous. The snake's distinctive features are the horns found on the top of the head, coloured black in this exemplar, probably to emphasise their presence. The natural colour of this viper depends largely on its habitat. Colours range from yellow to brown, with dark brown spots on the back. This exemplar is coloured yellow with red spots as a substitute for brown. The belly is white. Apart from the black horns, this is an accurate naturalistic image.

I10 : cobra in repose





OccID = 3195
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 195 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : back and top of head black, centre white, belly red

This sign shows a cobra in repose. It is probably one of the "spitting cobras" : a genus distinguished by its ability to shoot venom at its victims, just as the uraeus on the pharaoh's brow was supposed to spit fire at his enemies (Wilkinson 1992, 108-109; LÄ VI, 864-868). The likely species depicted in this exemplar is the Nubian spitting cobra (Naja nubiae) with its dark back and pale belly with red spots.

I10 : cobra in repose





OccID = 2053
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 206 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow, back outlined in black, black markings on head and neck

This variant of I10 could be any one of a number of species of cobra (Naja sp.). The body is yellow with a dark back and top of head. There are many slight variations in the colouring of the occurrences of I10, but most show the dark back and head and the paler underparts.

I12 : cobra erect (as on the forehead of the pharaoh





OccID = 3656
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 321 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : yellow, details red

This sign shows a cobra with its hood spread wide, preparing to strike. The body and hood are yelllow with a red outline. The head is bluish but indistinct. The animal depicted is one of the many spitting cobra species (Naja sp.) but the lack of any detail prevents a precise identification.

I14 : snake





OccID = 3197
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 197 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : back and head black, centre white, belly red

This sign shows an indeterminate variety of snake. As with the cobra I10 from the same monument (Penmaât. Mon.52), the back and head are black, the body pale and the belly red. This is probably not another image of the cobra, but rather that of a generic snake, where the serpentine form is more important than naturalistic accuracy.

I14A : snake pierced by knives





OccID = 3604
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 323 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : snake green, fill yellow, knives red

The snake, of indeterminate species, is green. The knives that pierce each coil as well as the head are red, symbolising aggression.

I31C : cobra I 10 on standard with feather





OccID = 1849
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 198 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : standard black with red cloth, cobra yellow with red spots, feather yellow outline with blue(?) interior

This composite sign shows the cobra I10 (Naja sp.) in repose with a feather on its back, resting on a standard. The cobra is coloured yellow with red spots. This is no longer a naturalistic image, as in the exemplars of I10, but rather a symbolic one, showing the connection between the animal and the desert (see Ex.E34). The standard is black, as in many composite signs including this object. Red cloth hangs from the top of the pole and the frontal appendage is present. The feather is green with a yellow outline, just as for the feather sign H6 from the same monument (Mon.33).

I129 : protective cobra with multiple coils





OccID = 2651
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 199 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green, coils filled white

This rare sign shows a cobra (Naja sp.) with its long body wrapped in coils. The snake is coloured green as this is a yellow background Ramesside inscription (see Diachrony). The green used here is therefore a substitute for yellow. The space between the coils has been painted white to improve the legibility of the image.

Group K : Fishes and Parts of Fishes

Group K contains six fish hieroglyphs of which five (K1, K2, K3, K4 and K5) possess occurrences in the database (83%). Precise identification is difficult but the work of Houlihan (1996, 129-133) and the taxonomic online database “fishbase" (www.fishbase.org) have proved most useful.

K1 the Tilapia (Tilapia nilotica) is the easiest to identify amongst the exemplars in Group K. The long dorsal fin and the two short ventral ones are distinctive. The context also confirms the reading of the sign as the Tilapia, used in the word “int” (Wb I,93,2) here meaning “valley”, in this case the Western Valley. The natural colouring of the Tilapia is silver-grey (rendered here as pale blue) with pink or red fins and tail. This has been fairly accurately rendered in the K1 exemplar, especially given the restricted palette available. The red colouring may have influenced the Tilapia's association with the sun and Horus, as it accompanied the sun god in his boat while slaying his enemies (Brewer 2001, 534). The Tilapia also has unusual parenting behaviour which heightened the symbolic significance of the fish. After hatching, the fry are held in the parent's (male or female) mouth for protection. They venture out when there is no danger and swim back in at the slightest alarm. The Egyptians took this as a symbol of rebirth and fertility (Houlihan 1996, 133).

K2 the Barbel or Binni (Barbus bynni) is sometimes confused with K4 the Oxyrhynchus (Mormyrus kannume). This at first seems to be the case here, as the natural colour of the Binni is golden yellow whereas the colour used here is blue with pale underparts, just like the Oxyrhynchus. The disposition and shape of the fins would indicate the Binni, and the characteristic elongated snout of the Oxyrhynchus is absent. The context , however, points to yet another species, often used in the expression stt mHit (Wb II, 65, 11) “a fish sting (during a trip to the swamps)”. The Wörterbuch states that three different varieties of fish hieroglyphs are regularly used in this expression. The most likely candidate therefore in this context would be the Electric catfish (Malapterurus electrica) K5 (Houlihan 1996, 129), yet the colouring does not match up (the Catfish is brown, not blue).

K3 the Flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) is clearly identifiable from the naturalistic colouring used here and by the accurate disposition of the dorsal and ventral fins. This prized edible fish is found in coastal waters as well as far up river and in brackish pools and lagoons.

K4 the Oxyrhynchus (Mormyrus kannume) is also found drawn with an exaggeratedly elongated tail as in the exemplar. It is identified especially by the elongated snout and the red fins and tail. The name of the fish XAt, as well as the hieroglyph, is found in several homophones, such as XAt “disease” and XAt “corpse” (FCD 200, Wb III, 359-361). This association with death and disease probably influenced the taboos that are found for this fish (see infra).

K5 adds to the confusion between these fish hieroglyphs. Both Gardiner (1963, 477) and Houlihan (1996, 129) attribute this sign to the Elephant fish (Petrocephalus bane/bovei). However, the context here is bs (Wb I, 473, 1) which according to the Wörterbuch appears to be determined by the Oxyrhynchus K4.

This unusual confusion of species and colouring, rarely seen in any other animal group apart from the Birds Group G, in which the Pintail G39 and the White-fronted goose G38 are regularly confused. This raises some interesting questions. Firstly, we may question the accuracy of the Wörterbuch in its use of hand-drawn signs, where for fish, the shape, fin details and colouring are the only reliable criteria for identification. Secondly, we may suspect the scribe-painters of deliberately or accidentally confusing signs.

This confusion could be attributed to two major causes:
1. A lack of ichthyological knowledge.
This would seem unlikely, as fish were a common sight in the markets and riverside villages. According to the Papyrus Harris (Dynasty XX), Ramses III during his 31-year reign provided the Theban temples with a total of 474,200 fish (Houlihan 1996, 131). Such quantities show that fishing was the object of a major commerce. The scribe-painters would therefore have been regularly reminded of the taxonomic details of the many varieties to be found in the Nile. More proof of detailed ichthyological knowledge comes from the decoration of the Dynasty XVIII temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri, where forty different species can be identified with ease (Danelius and Steinitz 1967).
2. A series of taboos.
Fish seem to have been the objects of many taboos, both religious and dietary. For instance, the Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) was associated with the goddess Neith and thus viewed as sacred and inedible. In Ptolemaic times, the Oxyrhynchus was in some places forbidden for consumption as it was supposed to have swallowed the penis of the god Osiris when his body was dismembered by his brother Seth (Plutarch De Iside et Osiride, 358B=18). The same author also records the case of hostilities between the Oxyrhynchus-eating inhabitants of Kynonpolis and their neighbours in the town of Oxyrhynchus where that fish was worshipped (De Iside et Osiride, 380B=72). These events took place later than the period under investigation here, but are indicative of the strength of this kind of taboo. The scribe- painters may thus have avoided certain taboos by deliberately making the fishes’ identification difficult. There are even cases of the deliberate omission of fish hieroglyphs from inscriptions close to the burial chamber (Houlihan 1996, 130). It should also be noted that fish are never mentioned in offering lists even though they are sometimes portrayed on offering tables. Evidently, there are strong taboos at work here.


K1 : a fish (tilapia)





OccID = 2963
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 200 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blue with gills, tips of fins and tail red

This sign shows the Tilapia or, as it is commonly known , the Bulti (Tilapia nilotica). The characteristically long dorsal fin, deep body and broad tail confirm the identification. The context is also the word for the Tilapia - int. The colouring is naturalistic. The silver body has been rendered by pale blue and the gills, fins and tail are tipped with red, typical of the fish's breeding colours.

K2 : a fish





OccID = 2779
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 201 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : body blue, belly white, fins red

This sign, according to Gardiner, shows the Binni (Barbus bynni) . However, in this exemplar, the colouring is closer to that of an Oxyrhynchus (K4).The latter is bluish, with pale underparts, wheras the Binni is golden yellow. However, the lack of the characteristic long snout of the Oxyrhynchus and  the disposition of the fins suggest that this as a Binni. The context only adds to the confusion and points maybe to the Electric catfish.

K3 : a fish





OccID = 191
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 324 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : grey back, white belly, red scales

This fish can be clearly identified as the Flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus). The flatened head and  the disposition of the fins as well as the colouring of grey back, pale belly and darker scales all combine to give an accurate, naturalistic representation.

K4 : oxyrhynchus fish





OccID = 3658
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 326 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : body blue (or green?), fins, tail and snout red

The Oxyrhynchus (Mormyrus kannume) is caracterized by an elongated snout, grey-blue body and red fins and tail. This exemplar has an exaggeratedly elongated tail, as does the other database occurrence. The colouring is naturalistic, but it is difficult to see why the tail is sometimes impossibly long.

K5 : a fish





OccID = 2427
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 202 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : pink with red dots and markings

This sign, according to Gardiner, shows the Elephant fish (Petrocephalus bane), so-called because of its long snout. Houlihan (1996, 129) prefers the species P. bovei. The context is the word bs (Wb I,473,1). However, the hand-drawn sign in the Wb is unclear and seems to suggest the Oxyrhynchus (K4). The colouring confirms the identification of Gardiner, as the natural colour of P. bane is pinkish brown with red dots as in this exemplar.

Group L : Invertebrata and Lesser Animals

Group L contains seven signs, with three database occurrences (43%). The only signs from this small group represented in the database are L1 the dung beetle or scarab, L2 the bee and L7 the scorpion. All three show naturalistic colouring, even though the bee’s yellow is sometimes rendered in red-orange and the black body parts in blue.

The scarab L1 presents an interesting and unusual case of erroneous observation, either accidental or deliberate. Contrary to Egyptian canonical imagery, the scarab does not push a ball of dung with its front legs, but always uses its back legs for this purpose. Maybe the strange idea of backwards motion coupled with a rather undignified use of the rear legs caused the Egyptians to modify this characteristic in their imagery. The second misconception concerns the ball of dung. The Egyptians considered this to be not only a metaphor for the sun and its diurnal motion, but also a symbol of birth, rebirth and creation. The latter symbol is due to the scarab’s habit of laying its eggs in dung on which the larvae feed before emerging as young beetles. This dung, however, is not the same as the ball seen in the sun metaphor, but is in fact a pear-shaped pellet of sheep’s excrement. The perfectly round ball, of cattle dung, is used exclusively for the adult’s food (Bianchi 2001, 179). However, these distinctions were probably of little importance for the Egyptians, and the scarab remained a powerful symbol of creation, rebirth and solar imagery throughout the Pharaonic period (Wilkinson 1992, 113).

The exemplar of the bee L2 displays an attempt at naturalistic colouring. The striped colouring of the abdomen is particularly well reproduced. The scribe-painter, however, seems to have had a problem with the wings which are in reality virtually transparent. They have been coloured orange with red details and a dark blue edge. Although this is totally non-naturalistic, it seems unlikely that any symbolic use of colour is intended. It seems more probable that the scribe-painter was inspired by two adjacent signs : a pair of cow’s ears ( Ex.F21 from the same monument) which have been coloured in exactly the same way (and which share the same form). The bee has been mutilated on purpose. The head and antennae are missing, thus rendering the insect harmless, even though the bee was considered beneficial with positive solar and regal associations (Wilkinson 1992, 115). However, protecting the deceased from stings was obviously of greater importance.

The scorpion L7 in the unique database occurrence is coloured yellow, thus identifying it probably as the Deathstalker (Leiurus quinquestriatus). In this hieroglyph, the sting and tail as well as the two pairs of side legs have been removed, in order to prevent the creature from harming either the reader or the dedicatee of the inscription (in this case Ramses II, in his temple at Abydos). This may seem somewhat paradoxical as the sign in this context is used as a determinative in the name srqt, the scorpion goddess Serket who uses her venom to protect the pharaoh.


L1 : dung beetle





OccID = 1901
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 203 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

This sign shows the Dung beetle (Scarabaeus sacer), commonly referred to as the Scarab. The hieroglyph is unusual as it is one of the very few signs consistently coloured black. This exemplar shows very precise detailing in the legs, head and wings and is a perfectly coloured, naturalistic image. The beetle's natural habit of fashioning and rolling a ball of dung was used as a metaphor for the diurnal cycle of the sun's passage from East to West, as well as a symbol of creation. This association is reinforced by the meaning of the word xpr written by this hieroglyph (Wb III, 260; FCD 107) : "come into being, exist, become" etc.

L2 : bee





OccID = 1676
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 204 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : rear yellow with red outline and black stripes, thorax white below blue above, wings yellow with red stripes

This sign shows the Honey bee (Apis mellifera). The colouring is naturalistic, apart from the wings which are yellow-orange. The abdomen is yellow-orange with black or dark blue stripes. The thorax (slightly damaged here) is pale underneath and dark above (traces of blue are just visible). The wings are normally virtually transparent, but this is difficult to render with a restricted palette, apart from by white, so the scribe-painter has chosen the same yellow-orange as  for the abdomen, with the delicate details picked out in red. This exemplar is also a case of deliberate mutilation of the sign, as the head has been removed in order to render the image harmless (even though the sting is still shown).

L2 : bee





OccID = 3502
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 327 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : outline, legs, antennae, abdomen stripes dark blue, fill yellow

This beautifully drawn exemplar is coloured naturally in yellow with black abdomen stripes, legs and details. It differs from the previous exemplar in having the head and antennae intact.

L7 : scorpion (modified for superstitious reasons)





OccID = 3081
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 205 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow

This sign shows the Deathstalker scorpion (Leiurus quinquestriatus), coloured a naturalistic yellow. The hieroglyph has been deliberately mutilated in order to protect the reader or the object of the inscription. The head has been removed, effectively killing the creature. Its two pairs of side legs are missing, preventing normal movement. The tail which holds the sting has been entirely removed in order to render the scorpion harmless.

Group M : Trees and Plants

Group M is particularly well represented in the database. Thirty-nine out of forty-five signs (87%) have at least one occurrence and thirty-four possess coloured images. The group contains several very common signs.

It is difficult to assign particular species to some of the signs in this group, especially as they often appear to be generic representations. This is the case for the tree M1 which Baum (1989, 3 passim) tentatively identifies as a sycamore (ficus sycomorus). However, this sign is mainly used as a determinative for many different species (Goldwasser 2002, 39-55). The exemplar shown here has green leaves and traces of red for the trunk and branches.

The same generic use is found for the bunch of herbs M2. The flower heads can be red or green but no precise identification is possible.

From a strict botanical point of view, the lotus flower M9 is in fact a waterlily (Nymphaea cerulea) and not a lotus (Nelumbo sp.). However, the term "blue lotus" is used throughout egyptological literature (Harer 2001, 304). The exemplar seen here uses beautifully detailed naturalistic colouring.

The complete lotus plant M12 is anchored in what appears to be the loaf of bread X1. Gardiner (EG 480) interprets this as the rhizome despite the lack of similarity, but it could also be a mound of earth from whence springs life in the form of a lotus (cf. Ex.X1). The daily blossoming of the lotus was in fact a symbol of the rebirth of the rising sun (Harer 2001, 305).

The flowering reed M17, whose colour-scheme is remarkably consistent throughout most of the period under study, has a blue stem with green fronds. It has proved to be one of the most useful markers for green and blue, facilitating the identification and assignation of these colours wherever they are indistinct. It is also one of the most frequently encountered signs, with forty-two out of fifty- two monuments (81%) possessing at least one occurrence. The designation “flowering reed” is a misnomer, according to Wendrich (2000, 254-255). She prefers to identify the sign as “the large feather-shaped leaves of the date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera)”. However, the sign showing reeds growing from the earth, M20, drawn and coloured in exactly the same way as M17, negates this suggestion.

The similar sign M18 which has a forward-facing foot extending out from the base of the stem, presents some interesting features. The colour red marks the foot clearly as a human body-part. The leaf’s stem, however, retains the colour blue (see the first exemplar). This changes to red when the stem takes on the form of a foot (see the second exemplar). This rear foot is preferred by Gardiner in the typographic form (EG 481) although the database occurrences recorded here show both variants to be common. Some variants have a white fill between the stem and the front-facing foot. This may be simply an indication of empty space but it could also symbolise motion (cf. the commentaries on D21, D28 and D54). This latter explanation is reinforced by the reading of the sign as ii with the sense of "to come” (FCD 10; Wb I, 37).

M19 is a curious sign. Gardiner describes it as “heaped conical cakes between reed M17 and sign like U36” (EG 481). It is used as a determinative in words for offering, such as aAbt (FCD 38; Wb I, 167). The first exemplar shown here does not show the fuller’s club U36 but rather what appears to be the mace T3. The reed M17 seems to have disappeared into the structure of what may be an offering table. However the colour of faded green, used for the whole sign does not correspond to this use. In the same way, the zigzag line between the two upright signs can hardly represent conical loaves as these are coloured black of dark blue in most cases (cf. Ex.X2). In the variant shown here, the lines are in fact red, corresponding perhaps to wood and are thus part of the structure and not bread offerings. This second exemplar also appears to have a reed on both sides of the structure and no club or mace. More research is needed in order to grasp the full significance of this hieroglyph.

The signs M22-M28 represent just two different plants. M22 and M22* are identified by Gardiner (EG 482, citing Loret) as the marsh club-rush (Heleocharis palustris). The plant (in the hieroglyph) is distinguished from the sedges (M23-M28) by two side shoots rather than four. It is very dark green in most occurrences. One variant (Mon.27) has red flowers, but these are normally only found on the sedges. This is probably a case of confusion of signs. M23 shows the sedge with four shoots and no flowers. M26-M28 show the sedge with red flowers at the tips of the shoots. M25 appears to be the result of confusion between M24 and M26. The sedges are also mostly green. This is the natural colour of these plants. The flowers can be red-brown, so red is the closest approximation.

The bundle of flax stems M36 shows the blue-green colour of the stems with the golden yellow colour of the ripe bolls. Obviously, these plants have just been harvested and tied together in a bunch using some kind of dried plant fibre cord. The colours open a window onto a precise moment in the cycle of growth and harvesting as the stems are still green and the bolls ripe.

The basket of fruit or grain M39 shows how one sign can be interpreted differently thanks to the colours. The first exemplar (Mon.17 - Dynasty IV) definitely shows a coiled basket (Wendrich 2000, 256) with details of the weaving which has the early canonical colouring of yellow. However the second exemplar (Mon.6 - Dynasty IV) definitely shows a clay pot, as it is coloured red with no detailing. In fact, exactly the same confusion arises for the basket or pot W10 carried on the head of the workman A9 (see the commentary on A9).


M1 : tree





OccID = 2274
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 207 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : trunk red (? faded), leaves green

This generic image of a tree may possibly represent the sycamore (ficus sycomorus) (Baum 1989, 3 passim; Wilkinson 1992, 117). However, it is used as a determinative in the names of several tree species (Goldwasser 2002, 39-55). The colours appear to be naturalistic with green leaves but the faded colour of the trunk and branches is not very clear. There aeems to be a red outline to the branches and trunk which would suggest wood, but it may be just an outline, with no other significance.

M2 : herb





OccID = 1589
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 275 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green

This sign shows a bunch of herbs. Identification of a particular species is impossible, due to the lack of any detail. Two occurrences (Mons.43 and 57) do have some red flower details, but all other occurrences show the same green stems and flower-heads.

M3 : branch





OccID = 2519
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 209 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This sign shows the branch of a tree. The shape and arrangement of the branches are remarkably consistent throughout the pharaonic period. So too is the use of the colour red, which unequivocally here represents wood.

M4 : palm branch stripped of leaves and notched





OccID = 1327
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 328 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue

This sign shows a palm branch stripped of its fronds and notched. In fact it appears to have been used as a notched tally-stick (Newberry 1948). It is coloured dark blue like the stem of the reed M17.

M7 : combination of M4 and Q3





OccID = 3904
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 329 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : M4 black(?), Q3 matting green, bands yellow

Here, the palm stem M4 seems to be black or red. The stool Q3 shows the typical colour of this object : green reed matting with yellow and red horizontal slats.

M8 : pool with lotus flowers





OccID = 3531
Monument : Fragment temple Montuhotep II
Monument type : Funerary temple
Localisation or provenance : Deir el-Bahri
Period : Dynasty XI
Reign(s) : Montuhotep II
Approximate date : 2055 - 2004
ExemplarID = 330 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : flowers green, stems red, reeds green, pool faded blue(?)

The pool is faded blue. The lotus heads are green-blue and their stems are red. The reeds are also green-blue with a short red stem under the leaf. Red is presumably used as a way of indicating the thicker stems of the lotus plants and the reeds.

M9 : lotus flower





OccID = 3905
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 331 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : stem indistinct, base of flower yellow with red lines, petals green and white

The lotus flower in this exemplar is quite detailed. The tips of the petals are white and the outer ones are blue-green. A red and yellow ring encircles the base of the flower. The stem is indistinct.

M11 : flower on long twisting stalk





OccID = 2554
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 211 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : green

The stem and the flower head are both green : a symbol of fresh vegetation. Variants show the flower tip as red.

M12 : leaf, stalk and rhizome of lotus





OccID = 803
Monument : Nefret-iabet G1225
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 332 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : stem and base red, leaf yellow

This sign shows the complete plant of the lotus. The leaf is yellow or green and the stem and roots are red. It is anchored in what appears to be the loaf of bread X1 which appears to be faded red. Variants also show this as green.

M13 : stem of papyrus





OccID = 3211
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 212 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green

The papyrus stem and head are green, as in nature. Variants sometimes have red flowers. The sign is read wAD which means "green".

M14 : combination of papyrus M13 and serpent I10





OccID = 3207
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 213 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : papyrus green, serpent top black, centre white, belly red dots

The serpent has the same colouring as I10 elsewhere on this monument (Mon.52). - the back is black, the body white and the belly red. The papyrus M13 is green. A Ramesside variant (Mon.43) has both signs coloured green. In this case, either the serpent is green as a substitute for yellow, or because of the meaning of this composite sign : "the Great Green" (wAD-wr).

M15 : clump of papyrus with buds bent down





OccID = 2512
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 214 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : base pink with red markings, stems green, buds yellow, flowers green with yellow and red tips

The papyrus flowers are green with yellow and red tips and flower base. The stems are green. The plant grows out of a clump of red earth, in this case with red wavy lines, emphasising the aquatic nature of the habitat. This would suggest the muddy water of the Nile. Variants show more or less detail, but are otherwise very similar.

M17 : flowering reed





OccID = 2513
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 215 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : stem blue, leaf green

This is a perfect exemplar of this very common sign. The stem is blue and the fronds are green with fine ribbing shown in blue. This colour scheme is repeated, with very little variation, throughout the pharaonic period. In many cases, the two colours of this sign can be used to distinguish blue from green in polychrome inscriptions.

M18 : combination of reed M17 and walking legs D54





OccID = 1234
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 216 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : reed stem blue, leaf green, leg red with white fill between leg and stem

This sign has a forward facing foot attached to the underside of the reed. The latter adopts the same colour scheme of M17, with a blue stem and green fronds. The foot is red, as would be expected of human body parts (see Group D). This exemplar also has a white fill between the stem and the foot. Some variants also treat the stem as a foot, as in the following exemplar.

M18 : combination of reed M17 and walking legs D54





OccID = 3122
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 217 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : reed green, legs red

This exemplar shows the stem as a second foot, as in fact does Gardiner (EG 481). However, the database occurrences recorded here are divded  between the two variants.

M19 : heaped conical cakes between reed M17 and sign like U36





OccID = 1329
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 279 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : green

It is difficult to reconcile Gardiner's description with the actual sign (EG 481). Allen prefers the vague "emblem for offerings" (Allen 2000, 435). In this variant, the fuller's club U36 looks more like the mace T3. The reed M17 just seems to be part of the structure. The entire object is coloured green (faded).

M19 : heaped conical cakes between reed M17 and sign like U36





OccID = 3390
Monument : Deir el-Bahri
Monument type : Funerary temple
Localisation or provenance : Deir el-Bahri
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut
Approximate date : 1473 - 1458
ExemplarID = 333 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : reeds green, zigzag red, fill white

This variant clearly shows two reeds M17 on either side of a structure painted red. This would normally represent an object made of wood. The triangles formed by the red line do appear to be paler than the background, which could be an indication of transparency. It is certainly difficult to see them as conical cakes.

M20 : reeds growing side by side





OccID = 2507
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 218 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : stems and shoots blue, leaves green, earth red

These three reeds follow the canonical colour scheme for M17 of blue stem and green fronds. The new shoots are also blue. The earth is red. Variants can show black earth.

M22 : rush with shoots





OccID = 3463
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 334 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : green

This sign is distinguished from other rushes by its only having single side shoots. Its original sense is "fecundity" ("Fruchtbarkeit" - Wb II, 309.1), which explains the colour green used here. Variants have buds (red or blue) on the shoots.

M22* : two rushes with shoots





OccID = 1837
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 219 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : green (almost black)

This sign is in fact two M22 rushes side by side. The colour green is logically carried forward from M22, even though the sense is different : especially the demonstrative  nn "this, these" (FCD 134)..

M23 : plant regarded as typical of Upper Egypt (M26?)





OccID = 1475
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 220 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : green

This very common sign is always green, representing vegetation and in this case the natural colour of the plant.

M24 : combination of plant M23 and mouth D21





OccID = 2355
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 221 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : plant green, mouth red

The plant is green, as for M23 and the mouth D21 is red as always.

M25 : confusion of M24 and M26 ('faulty' writing)





OccID = 2430
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 335 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : plant green, flowers and mouth red

This plant appears to be a combination of M24 and M26. As in M24, the plant stands on the mouth D21. The green plant has red flowers as in M26 and the mouth is red.

M26 : sedge(?) growing from a sign for land (N17?)





OccID = 2290
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 222 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : ground blue, base red, stem green, flowers red

This plant has green shoots with red flowers and a red base, probably a naturalistic image. The small sign beneath, possibly the sign for land N17 is blue, a typical colour for land (see N16 and N17).

M27 : combination of sedge M26 and arm D36





OccID = 2544
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 223 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : sedge blue, flowers red, arm red

The plant is blue or green with red flowers. The arm is red. The colours match those used typically for the individual signs.

M28 : combination of sedge M26 and the sign for ten V20





OccID = 193
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 595 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green stem, flowers red and black, "10" red

The sedge M26 is green with red flowers. The sign V20 is red (see Exs.V20 and V21) and indicates a hobble, but is also used as a numeral  "10". The whole sign reads "the 10s of Upper Egypt" (EG 483).

M29 : pod from some sweet-smelling tree





OccID = 3209
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 224 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : green

This pod is a naturalistic green.

M30 : a sweet-tasting root?





OccID = 461
Monument : Benia TT.343
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1473 - 1400
ExemplarID = 604 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green, tip red and yellow

This pod or root is green with a red and yelllow flowering tip and ring. One variant is horizontal as in V22 but the context is clear (bnr - Wb I, 461, 12).

M33 : grains of corn





OccID = 1922
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 226 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

These grains are either red or yellow, both corresponding to different stages of maturity.

M34 : bearded ear of emmer





OccID = 1571
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 227 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue/black

This sign shows a head of emmer (Triticum turgidum), one of the earliest forms of cultivated wheat.The stem appears to be dark blue or green and the spikes are maybe red.

M34 : bearded ear of emmer





OccID = 3441
Monument : Iunu G4150
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 336 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

This variant of the ear of emmer, from a much earlier monument, shows  the ears coloured yellow in a naturalistic fashion. The sign appears to represent just one ear and not the entire head as in the typographic version.

M35 : heap of corn





OccID = 1445
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 228 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow with red dots

The yellow background, dotted with red gives a good approximation of a naturalistic image of a heap of ripe corn. There appears to be a blue or black base, representing a packed-earth floor.

M36 : bundle of flax stems showing the bolls





OccID = 2357
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 337 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : stems blue/green, bolls yellow, string tie yellow

This sign shows a large bunch of green flax stems with  their yellow bolls still attached. The bunch has been tied together and knotted with some sort of dried plant fibre, coloured yellow.

M39 : basket of fruit or grain





OccID = 3443
Monument : Iunu G4150
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 340 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : basket yellow, lines red, fruit faded

The yellow plant fibre of the container shows this sign to be a basket of fruit. The fruit is faded. Other variants from this period show different containers and different coloured fruit.

M39 : basket of fruit or grain





OccID = 195
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 339 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : basket red, grains black

In this variant, the" basket" is coloured red, probably indicating an earthenware pot. The fruit in this case is coloured green.

M40 : bundle of reeds





OccID = 1878
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 230 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : reeds green, lashing yellow

The reeds are green, showing that they have recently been gathered. The bundle is tied together and knotted with some sort of dried plant fibre, coloured yellow.

M42 : flower?





OccID = 2549
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 231 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This sign could be a flower, but there seems to be no etymological justification. Gardiner (EG 484) suggests this sign is a replacement for Z11 (two planks crossed and joined). Additional proof can be seen in the colour red, used in both signs and representing wood. However a variant does use blue, which could represent a flower.

M105 : M15 with town niwt as base





OccID = 1830
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 232 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : town wall blue, crossroads yellow, papyrus stems green, flowers red

The papyrus plant M15 adheres to the other occurrences of M15 : green stems and red flowers. The town wall is blue representing baked brick (see O1) and the crossroads are yellow, possibly sandy paths.

Group N : Sky, Earth, Water

Group N is particularly well represented in the database. Thirty-nine out of forty-three signs (91%) have at least one occurrence and thirty-four possess coloured images. The group contains several very common signs.

The signs in group N demonstrate both the desire of the scribe-painter to imitate the natural world and the limitations of the canonical palette to achieve this goal. Sky, sun, moon, stars, earth, sunlight and water are all difficult to reproduce accurately using only basic focal colours (see Berlin and Kay, 1969). Conventional colours are therefore preferred.

The sky N1 is unsurprisingly coloured blue, but with shades ranging from blue-green, through pale blue to dark blue and even blue-black : used when depicting the night sky. One detailed attempt at portraying the night sky, from the tomb of Horemheb (KV.57 - Mon.25), has within the blue sky hieroglyph six stars probably painted white, but which have blended with the underlying dark blue to appear very pale blue (see exemplar). However, this occurrence is unique amongst the sky hieroglyphs in the database.

The sun N5 is almost always red, but can also have a white or gold ring around the outside. This gives the impression of the brilliance of the sun : a kind of halo. It should be noted that none of the database occurrences is drawn as in the typographic version, with a small dot in the centre. The outer ring is always narrow. In one occurrence (TT.69 - Mon.40), the centre is pale yellow or white with pale, elongated spots (which look like grains) and the outer ring has dark blue dots. This appears to be a confusion with the threshing floor O50, even though the context is clear (nHH).

The moon is represented by the signs N9-N13*. N9 shows a disk divided in the centre with the top half dark blue-black and the lower half red. It may represent a partial lunar eclipse as this could explain the red colour which can be seen during these events. N10 is not so clear. Gardiner (EG 486) describes it as an alternative form of N9, but the colours used (blue and yellow) and the shape of the obscured portion do not correspond. It is probably simply the moon (yellow like the stars) with part of the disk in shade, representing a new moon. The simple crescent moon N11 is yellow or transparent like the stars, but the occurrence of N12, an alternative form, is red. This can be explained as being a confusion with the rib F42, as mentioned in Gardiner (EG 486).

The star signs N13*-N15 are mostly transparent with a red outline, or yellow. The circle enclosing the star in the one occurrence of N15 is black and represents the obscurity of the netherworld : the dwAt.

Sunlight presents a particularly interesting case. As can be seen in the stele of Taparet (Musée du Louvre E 52), the Egyptians had an advanced understanding of the colours that constitute visible sunlight. Although rainbows are rare occurrences in Egypt, the Egyptians must have observed the scattering effect of light as it passes through a natural prism such as rock crystal. This same scattering can be seen in the sign for the sunrise N28. This sign shows several separate rings of colour which vary from occurrence to occurrence. Clearly, the innermost ring which varies in the same way as all the other rings does not represent a hill, as in Gardiner’s description, but is rather one of the constituent colours of sunlight. A better example of the sun rising over a hill is seen in the sign N27, where the hill is coloured red or stippled yellow to indicate sandy desert. In this sign and in the other hill signs N25 and N26, there is often a blue line underneath the hill to indicate the “black” fertile alluvium in contrast to the “red” desert. This blue alluvium is also seen in the signs for land N16, N17, N20 and N21. Blue is one of the substitutes for black and gives a fair approximation to the grey colour of sun-dried alluvium. This can also be seen in signs such as the house seen in plan O1, where the walls are made of mud-brick and coloured blue.

The hill slope N29 is described by Gardiner as “sandy” (EG 489). However, sand would be represented by pink, red or yellow with dark spots, as for instance in N27. The occurrences found here are mostly blue, with white, yellow and red as alternatives. In one inscription (Mon.31), two colours, blue and red, have been used in the same context. Blue often represents the alluvium left by the receding Nile flood. Yellow and red are desert colours. White can represent limestone. It would appear then, that we have a prototypical hillside. This is unusual in the canon, where hieroglyphs are normally categorised by the use of the same or similar colours. The different shades used here remain, at this time, somewhat obscure.

The water signs included in the corpus (including canals, pools and wells) are N35, N35*, N36, N37, N3, N41 and N41*. N35 and N35*, as pure representations of rippled, fast-flowing water, are nearly always black or very dark blue. This would suggest silt-laden Nile flood water, the bringer of fertility to the “black land”. In contrast, the water in the canal N36 is most often green, giving the impression of slow-flowing irrigation channels. The garden pool N37 also has green water or in some cases light blue which both represent the still water of a pond. The other garden pool N39 is mostly blue, with a blue or black outline and dark (blue?) ripples. It should be noted that this sign can also be used as a determinative for irrigated land (EG 491), which may explain the use here of blue and black.

The last two water signs are intriguing. The well full of water N41 is used primarily as a metaphor for the female genitalia (EG 492) probably both as a source of life and for physiological reasons. Goldwasser calls this a “pictorial euphemism” (2002, 85). The colours used are mostly blue and green, as for the pool N37. The slightly different N41*, which has three protuberances at the top, may in fact not be a well at all but rather a crucible used for smelting copper. The exemplar from Mon.31 is the clearest occurrence. It appears to be a bowl with a red outline, which shows the contents as a series of horizontal, slightly wavy, red lines. At the top are three evenly-spaced appendages in green. This hardly resembles the well seen in N41. A clay crucible containing molten copper is probably a better interpretation. The green appendages could be some kind of fibrous handles, but this seems unlikely as they would have to be fire-resistant. The most likely explanation would be of pieces of copper ore, shown on the surface in an example of the contents drawn above the vessel (Schäfer 1974, 144). The Mon.31 context is nHm, where N41* represents the phoneme Hm, as for N41. The use of N41* in place of N41 appears at first to be purely as a sign variant, without any metaphorical significance. However, there is a connection between the sign N41* and the goddess Hathor, not only a divinity representing the female principle, but also the patron of miners. Hathor can have the epithet nbt-nHm “mistress of those that take away” (Wb II, 297, 6), which is written using N41* instead of N41 (LGG IV, 81). Many shrines to the goddess have been located at copper mines, such as those at Serabit el-Khadim (Valbelle and Bonnet 1996). It seems therefore likely that N41* represents a copper smelting crucible, with a rich metaphorical connection, enhanced by the sign’s polychromy.


N1 : sky





OccID = 3213
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 234 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue

This common sign is always blue, representing the sky. It can be light or dark, but no contextual significance can be attributed to the different shades.

N1 : sky





OccID = 1203
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 233 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue with white stars

This exemplar has been included as a rare variant of the night sky with its stars, here painted pale blue or semi-transparent white on the dark blue sky.

N3 : O.K. form of N2





OccID = 3668
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 341 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : dark blue

This sign shows the sky as dark blue or black with an object suspended underneath. Gardiner's explanation is of a broken oar, bound to the sky (EG 485), but this exemplar has a cross-piece rather than a bound fracture. The sign is a determinative for grH "night" and kkw "darkness" which are symbolically represented by the blue-black colour used here.

N5 : sun





OccID = 1204
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 235 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : inner red, outer ring white

This sign shows the sun's disk and is coloured red. Most occurrences have a white outer ring, but some simply show a full disk. None of the occurrences has a small central dot as in the typographic version used in all hieroglyphic fonts. The white outer ring represents the light of the sun, as can be seen in the sign for sunshine N8. One variant (Mon.40) has a yellow disk and a white ring with blue dots.

N7 : combination of sun N5 and T28





OccID = 2805
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 237 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : sun red with ring white, block white with base blue and triangle red

The sun is the same as N5 with a red disk and a white outer ring. The butcher's block T28 also shows the usual colour scheme for this object with its blue base, white sides and red centre (see T28 for further details). The association of the two signs reads Xrt-hrw "that which  belongs to the day" = "daytime" (Wb III, 391, 12-13).

N8 : sunshine





OccID = 3034
Monument : Userhat TT.56 yellow background
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 238 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : sun red, outer ring and sun rays white

The solar disk is red. The rays of light coming from the sun's white outer ring are also coloured white, symbolising sunshine.

N9 : moon with its lower half obscured (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 1863
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 239 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : lower red, upper blue

This sign probably represents a lunar eclipse as it is at this time that the lunar disk can appear red. The blue half is perhaps the dark side obscured at half-moon.

N10 : moon with lower part obscured - alternative form of N9





OccID = 2040
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 240 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : upper blue, lower yellow

This sign shows less of the obscured side, but has a curious appendage in the midldle. The yellow part probably represents the moonlight, less strong than the white-coloured sunlight (see N5). A variant, all green, from Mon.52, is a probable confusion with Aa1.

N11 : crescent moon (also written vertically when det.)





OccID = 161
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 344 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outline red, fill white

This crescent moon has a red outline with white fill, as is often seen for stars (N14) for example in the occurrence from KV.57 - Mon.25.

N12 : crescent moon - alternative form of N11 (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 2358
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 242 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This exemplar is red, which is difficult to associate with a crescent moon. This could in fact be a confusion with F42, a rib (EG  486) where the colour red would be natural.

N13* : star N14 beneath a half-moon crescent N11





OccID = 2360
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 243 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow

This sign, which shows a crescent moon over a star, is coloured yellow, a reasonable attempt at a naturalistic image.

N14 : star





OccID = 2046
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 244 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow, outline and centre ring red

The star sign is often coloured yellow, as here, but can simply be transparent or white with an outline. Variants can also be coloured blue (cf. Ex.N1 bis).

N14 : star





OccID = 1267
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 345 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : white with red outline

This variant shows the star as white with a red outline, an alternative attempt at naturalism.

N15 : star in circle





OccID = 3215
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 245 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : star white with outline red, outer circle black

This sign shows a star, in this case the red-outlined, transparent variant enclosed in a black circle. This circle is a symbol of the darkness that surrounds the stars : kkw the blackness of night. The sign is used as an ideogram in the word dwAt - the "netherworld", also associated with darkness.

N16 : flat alluvial land with grains of sand N33 beneath it





OccID = 3214
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 247 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blue with outline black

This sign shows the alluvial land of the Nile valley, known to the Egyptians as kmt the "black land". However blue is the colour most often used to represent either the earth, as here, or the colour of mud brick (cf. Ex.O1). Variants are green, representing cultivated land with fresh vegetation. The three dots seen underneath can be either blue or (occasionally) red. Red could indicate sand.

N17 : land - alternative form of N16





OccID = 2069
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 246 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue

This sign, which is really a variant of N16, shows the same colouring (blue) for a tract of alluvial land.

N19 : two sandy tracts (N18 repeated, often smaller)





OccID = 2114
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 574 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red, outline black

This sign represents two tracts of sand, hence the colour red. Occurrences of N18, a single tract (no database image), have pale red or white fill with darker red dots, a typical colour scheme for sand.

N21 : tongue of land





OccID = 3078
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 250 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue

This sign shows a tongue of land, often used to represent the banks of the Nile. The colour blue is typical of alluvial earth (see N16, N17, O1 etc.).

N24 : land marked out with irrigation runnels





OccID = 2812
Monument : Nakht-Min TT.87
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1425
ExemplarID = 251 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue

This sign, used as a determinative for districts, nomes etc. Shows irrigated land. The channels (runnels) are coloured blue, representing water. A variant shows red fill in the squares, possibly as a sign of earth or sand.

N25 : sandy hill country over edge of green cultivation





OccID = 2085
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 252 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : hills red, base blue

The hills are coloured red, sometimes stippled to show sand. The base (not always present) is mostly blue, sometimes green, indicating alluvial or cultivated land.

N26 : sand-covered mountain over edge of green cultivation





OccID = 3041
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 253 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : hills red, earth blue

This sign shows the same colouring as for N25 - red for the hills and blue for the land. The land is often absent.

N27 : sun rising over mountain





OccID = 2961
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 255 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : ground blue, mountain pink with red dots, sun red with outer ring white

This sign combines the hill N26 with the sun N5 and follows the same colour conventions. The sun is red with a white outer ring (some variants have no ring). The hill is stippled red over pink to represent the desert. The land beneath is blue (absent in some variants).

N28 : hill over which are the rays of the rising sun





OccID = 2075
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 256 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : bands of (from centre) red, blue, green, blue, white, red

This sign is highly variable in the order of the bands of colour, but all occurrences show alternate red, blue, green, white etc. Only one occurrence (this exemplar) shows the inner band as red, so there is no reason to affirm that the sun is rising over a hill. It seems likely that these bands are simply the rays of light seen at dawn, split up into their constituent colours.

N28 : hill over which are the rays of the rising sun





OccID = 1855
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 257 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : rings (from inside) blue, black, blue, red, blue, black

This variant shows many bands of colour. The inner ring is blue.

N29 : sandy hill slope





OccID = 1552
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 261 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blue

This sign is highly variable, showing mostly blue (as here) or white. This therefore cannot be a sandy hill slope (although Gardiner cites one reference - EG 489). Blue or black would normally indicate alluvial land, not a hill. So this sign remains enigmatic (see the commentary on N29).

N29 : sandy hill slope





OccID = 2315
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 258 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This exemplar is unusual in that it is found once in red on the same monument (Mon.31) as several blue versions in the same context (see previous exemplar). This could be an error by the scribe-painter.

N29 : sandy hill slope





OccID = 1292
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 260 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : white

This variant is white, in many cases used to indicate stone (see O39). Another variant uses yellow.

N30A : mound of earth with walls?





OccID = 2711
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 262 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : mound green, outline red, walls blue

This sign is difficult to identify. Any attempt must be speculative. Both occurrences are from "yellow background" inscriptions and therefore the colour green for the mound is unreliable. It could in fact be yellow or white during other periods. The "walls" of this exemplar are blue, possibly indicating mud brick. The other occurrence has red ones, possibly indicating wood. The curious "knot" at the top is red in both occurrences.

N31 : road bordered by shrubs





OccID = 2303
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 263 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : road red, outline blue, shrubs green

This detailed exemplar shows the road as red (packed sand and earth?), the cultivated edges as blue (alluvium) and the plants as green. Variants show less detail, most just with a blue outline.

N33 : grain of sand, pellet or like





OccID = 1887
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 264 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue

This exemplar is blue, but variants are yellow, green or white. This sign, therefore, is generic for any kind of grain or pellet.

N33A : three grains of sand (alternative to Z2)





OccID = 3219
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 265 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outer red, inner white

As in N33, these grains are generic, occurring in yelllow, green, blue and white variants. This exemplar (white with a red outline) is also a graphic variation with the grains arranged in a triangle.

N35 : ripple of water





OccID = 2506
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 266 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

This sign, one of the most common, is either black or blue. It is often difficult to distinguish between the two, but both signify the water of the Nile, rich in silt.

N35* : three ripples of water





OccID = 1845
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 267 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue

This sign, a triple group of N35, has the same colouring of black or blue. The signification of the colour is identical.

N36 : channel filled with water





OccID = 2526
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 268 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : channel sides blue, water green

This sign shows a channel of water, coloured green, maybe indicatiing fresh water. Variants have blue water. Some have ripple marks, confirming this as water. The sides of the channel, probably made of  mud brick, are blue.

N37 : garden pool





OccID = 2668
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 269 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : pool rim blue, water green

This sign shows a garden pool. The sides are blue, as in N36, possibly as a symbol for mud brick or else some kind of grey-blue stone. The latter is possible as N37 can sometimes be substituted for the block of stone O39 (EG 491). The water itself is green.

N39 : garden pool full of water





OccID = 1852
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 270 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : outline and waves blue, fill white

This more detailed sign of a garden pool represents the water by a series of small red ripples. Variants have black and blue ripples. The sides are blue, indicating grey-blue stone or mud brick, as in N37.

N41 : well full of water (rippled surface)





OccID = 2364
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 271 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : outline blue, water green

This sign showing a well full of water, has blue sides and green water just as the signs for a pool (N37 and N39). The surface is faintly rippled. One variant has a red outline.

N41* : well with water ???





OccID = 1523
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 272 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : recipient red outline and red inner horizontal lines, three green appendages on top

This variant of N41 shows the water as a series of red ripples. A variant has blue ripples.The three appendages at the surface are green.

N42 : well full of water (smooth surface)





OccID = 2948
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 273 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : green

This sign, similar to N41, has no central appendage at the surface The water appears green and the outline is red.

Group O : Buildings, Parts of Buildings, etc.

For Group O, forty-one out of fifty-one signs (80%) have at least one occurrence and thirty-seven possess coloured images. Architectural images have, since the very beginning of hieroglyphic writing, been an important, well represented category (cf. the niched enclosures on the Narmer palette : Tiradritti 1999, 40-41). A monograph by Badawy (1948) gives an insight into the representation and evolution of many of the architectural signs.

One of the staples of Egyptian architecture was, and still is, mud-brick. One sign, O39, not only represents a block of stone when coloured white as in the first exemplar, but could also show a single mud-brick when coloured blue as in the second. The Nile alluvium, deposited by the annual flood, when mixed with sand and binding agents such as straw and chaff, is an ideal material for the production of sun-dried bricks (for a full discussion of the composition of Egyptian mud-brick and the method of manufacture, see Kemp 2000, 78-84). The grey-brown mud dries to a colour that the Egyptians found closest to blue-black, as neither grey nor brown were available to the scribe-painters.

Many Group O database occurrences use blue-black to represent mud-brick buildings or walled enclosures, as seen from above in plan. These signs are O1, O1*, O2, O2*, O3, O4, O6, O7, O7*, O8, O10, O36, O38, O39, O47, O48 and O49.

O1 - O3 show the same basic form, which could be a schematic view of a house seen in plan or, as Badawy suggests (1948, 41), simply a room or even an open-air courtyard. O4 is described by Gardiner as a “reed shelter” (EG 493) but the colour blue also shows the wall to be made of mud- brick rather than reeds, which would be green or yellow. The sign, therefore, probably represents a room in a house or a courtyard. O38 shows the corner of a wall and as such is also blue or black, indicating mud-brick.

O6 - O10 and O36 represent walled enclosures, also made of mud-brick, with a gateway or door in one of the lower corners. Most of these doors are coloured red to indicate wood. Most occurrences also have a white fill, indicating empty space and showing these representations to be of an enclosure. The signs are all of temple enclosures, as is seen from the word Hwt “temple” which composes part of each term (FCD 165-166).

Interestingly, O7, O7* (and O8 according to EG 493) have a “loaf” sign X1 in the top centre of the enclosure, which is painted blue or black like the walls. As temples were supposed to be built upon the primaeval mound of creation which surged up from the waters of Nun (Kemp 2000, 92), this sign could indeed represent the mound. The colour blue or black enhances this explanation as it represents the mud that appears as the Nile flood subsides, giving the “black land” of Egypt. This would also explain why this “loaf” X1 is always painted black or blue, even when written in words for bread, where these colours seem out of place (see the commentary on X1).

O36 represents a niched walled enclosure and is also made of blue-black mud-brick. The sign even reads inb “wall” (FCD 23). O47 and O48 are also signs for walled enclosures but at a specific site : Nekhen. The signification of the two red diagonals inside the wall is unclear. Perhaps they represent wooden totems of the town.

O49, the sign for a town or village, has variable polychromy. Most occurrences have a blue or black outer ring which is probably a mud-brick wall. Inside this wall can be found a green cross, often described as a crossroads (EG 498), but which is more likely to be an area under cultivation. The white triangles seen on some occurrences would then represent open space.

Several signs appear to show wooden objects or parts of buildings. These are O16, O18, O19, O21, O22, O23, O29, O30, O31, O34, O35, O42 and O44.

The gateway O16, the shrines O18 and O19 and the tent O22 are yellow. This can represent wood, maybe gilded, or reed matting in the case of the primitive shrine O19 (Badawy 1948, 46). Red is used in O21 to represent the wooden door. A red wooden pole supports the roof of the booth O22. O23 has a wooden structure. The other signs are all red and are clearly made of wood, with the possible exception of the door bolt O34 (and O35) which could be copper. Badawy (1948, 54-55) thinks that the loops at the top of the picket fence O42 are made of leather, but no difference can be discerned in the drawing between the pickets and the loops.

The column O28 presents some difficulties. Separate bands of blue and red, in different arrangements, form the column. One occurrence (Mon.33) is highly decorated with a large central white spot. The top of the columns can be flat or angled. The “tenon” at the top can be straight or looped. The same sort of column can be seen in the sign for a hall O27, but again the bands of blue and red are arranged unlike any of the occurrences of O28. Any attempt at explaining the colours or justifying these divergences would be speculative.


O1 : house





OccID = 2528
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 274 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue, fill white

This common sign represents the wall of a house, seen in plan. The wall is blue (occasionally black), representing mud brick, the ubiquitous building material made from sun-baked alluvium. Some occurrences have a white or yellow fill, indicating empty space.

O1* : two houses O1 joined together





OccID = 2421
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 346 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : blue, fill white

This variant of O1 shows two houses joined side by side. The same colour scheme applies, with blue mud-brick walls and white fill.

O2* : combination of house O1 and heart and windpipe F35





OccID = 2859
Monument : Paroy TT.295
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 347 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : house blue, heart and windpipe white with red markings

In this sign, the blue house O1 is combined witha red and white heart and windpipe F35. Both signs follow the polychrome canon.

O3 : combination of house O1, oar P8 and vessels X3 and W22





OccID = 3230
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 348 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : house and pot blue, mace and jug red

In this composite sign, all of the elements follow the canon. The house wall O1 is blue, the loaf X3 is blue, and the pottery beer-jug W22 is red. The oar P8 in this occurrence is more like the walking-stick S43, but both can be yellow or red indicating an object made of wood.

O4 : reed shelter in fields





OccID = 2113
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 349 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue, fill white

This sign is identifed by Gardiner as a reed shelter (EG 493), yet the colour blue identifies this as a wall of mud-brick. Badawy sees this sign as the plan of a fortress, as some OK samples have battlements and the entrance through a corridor could be a defensive device (Badawy 1948, 43). But, like O1, It could be simply a room in a house.

O6 : rectangular enclosure seen in plan





OccID = 3845
Monument : Ta-ouseret-em-per-nesou (aka Unnefer).
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Bab el-Gasus
Period : Dynasty XXI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 1069 - 945
ExemplarID = 597 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : wall blue, inner green, door red

This sign shows the plan of a gated enclosure. The wall is blue, representing mud-brick. The fill is blue-green, perhaps indicating vegetation, but most variants have the more usual white fill to indicate empty space. The rectangle at the bottom is a gateway or door made of wood (red).

O7 : rectangular enclosure - alternative form of O6 (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 1917
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 350 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outlines and X1 black, door red, white fill

This sign, similar to O6, represents a gated enclosure seen in plan. It has a small black semi-circle at the top which appears to be the loaf X1 whose significance is unclear (see the commentary on O7). The walls are made of mud-brick (black) and the door is made of wood (red).

O7* : Enclosure O 7 repeated twice





OccID = 3934
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 596 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : outlines and 't' black, doors red, white fill

This sign shows three O7 enclosures side by side. The colours used are the same - blue walls (mud brick) red doors (wooden) black X1 signs and white fill.

O8 : combination of enclosure O7 and column O29





OccID = 2084
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 351 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : enclosure blue, doors red, fill white, column red

This composite sign shows the enclosure O6, but in this exemplar with another gate at the top. The enclosure, which has a white fill indicating empty space, is traversed by a column O29 which is made of wood (red).  Some variants have only one door, but none has the loaf X1 as seen in Gardiner (EG 493). The wall is blue, representing mud-brick and the gates are red, indicating wood.

O10 : combination of enclosure O6 and falcon G5





OccID = 3491
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 352 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : enclosure dark blue, door red, fill white, falcon blue(?) with tail, feet and top of head red

This sign also shows a dark blue mud-brick enclosure with a red wooden gateway. There is a white fill to show empty space. The falcon G5 is blue-green with red tail and feet and the underparts are white. One variant shows the door as white space, maybe indicating an open gateway.

O11 : palace with battlements





OccID = 1453
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 354 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : base black, wall yellow and white with red band, battlements red

This sign shows a two storey tower house construction, with a Xkr frieze along the top. The base is black (mud-brick) and the ground floor yellow and red, probably painted plaster. The first floor appears to have a white plastered facade. The yellow triangle probably represents a wooden staircase leading to the roof terrace (Badawy 1948, 44-45). A variant (Mon.39) has different colour combinations such as a blue upper floor and a red staircase.

O12 : combination of palace O11 and arm D36





OccID = 2425
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 355 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : arm red, wall white, diagonal yellow, stripe blue, battlements yellow

This composite sigh shows the building O11 traversed by the arm D36. The two storey tower house with a Xkr frieze on the top has a similar colour scheme, with layered colours for the ground floor and a white plastered facade. The yellow triangle indicating a staircase is also present. The arm is canonical red.

O16 : gateway(?) surmounted by protecting serpents





OccID = 2308
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 356 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : gateway yellow with red markings, cobras red

The gateway is yellow with red outlines. This normally indicates wood (Badawy 1948, 281). It could also be a curtain (EG 494) made of reed matting, but this seems less likely when viewed in detail. The striking cobras are red, representing their aggression and dangerosity. Early occurrences (eg. Mon.14) show a blue ground plan, like O1, indicating a mud-brick encosure.

O18 : shrine seen from side





OccID = 3102
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 357 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow

Badawy (1948, 47) believes this to be a primitive shrine made of reeds, but this occurrence is more recent and appears to be more sophisticated. Bonnamy and Sadek (2010, 853) prefer a naos. The yellow colour could indicate wood or gilded wood, more in keeping with the period.

O19 : primitive shrine





OccID = 3805
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 358 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

This shrine, a symbol of Upper Egypt, definitely has primitive traits, with two wooden poles in front supporting a ballustrade (Badawy 1948, 46). The yellow structure could be made of wood or cane matting.

O21 : faade of shrine





OccID = 1289
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 359 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : shrine white with red door

This shrine, an elongated front view of the facade, is white, probably painted plaster. The door is made of wood (red). The earliest occurrences have a yellow wall, just like the shrines O18 and O19.

O22 : open booth supported by a pole





OccID = 684
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 594 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : booth yellow, pole red

This structure appears to be some kind of tent, supported in the middle by a pole (Badawy 1948, 51-52). The sides and roof are made of yellow canes bound together with blue (vegetal fibre) rope. The pole is red, made of wood.

O23 : hall used in the Sed-festival





OccID = 3414
Monument : Deir el-Bahri
Monument type : Funerary temple
Localisation or provenance : Deir el-Bahri
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut
Approximate date : 1473 - 1458
ExemplarID = 361 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : base blue, structure red, fill white

This pavillion, used in the Sed festival, appears to be a wooden structure (red), with white (stone) steps leading up to a dais. The entire structure sits on a base of earth. Badawy (1948, 52-53) sees this as a pavilllion open on four sides, each with its steps leading up to a ceremonial platform.

O24 : pyramid with side of surrounding wall





OccID = 685
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 362 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : white with red outline, point yellow

This exemplar is all white, either representing whitewashed plaster or fine limestone. The shape of a pyramidion can be just made out at the summit. The steeply angled sides are of the kind found in front of the tombs at Deir el-Medina.

O27 : hall of columns





OccID = 2366
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 598 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : wall blue, columns base blue, top red

The hall is shown in plan, blue representing mud-brick walls. The columns are simplified versions of O28 with blue bases and red upper halves.

O28 : column with tenon on top





OccID = 3235
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 363 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : column blue with red band, tenon red

This signs is variable, with different occurrences arranging the coloured bands differently. However, they all display blue and red sections. The loop on the top is described by Gardiner as a "tenon" (EG 495) but it appears to be a loop, similar to those found on top of the fence O42.

O29 : wooden column (also written vertically)





OccID = 2450
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 364 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This sign shows a column, or a tent pole, made of wood. The sign  provides proof of this use of red to represent wooden objects as the word aA "column" is determined by the sign for wood M3. This sign is more often written horizontally than vertically (75% of corpus occurrences).

O30 : supporting pole





OccID = 1910
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 365 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This sign probably shows some kind of supporting pole, such as would be used to hold up a canopy. It is made of wood as shown by the colour red. For a similar sign, this time inverted, which Gardiner places after U12 (EG 517), see the discussion in the commentary on Aa21.

O31 : door





OccID = 2367
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 366 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : pink with red stripes

This sign shows the panel of a door drawn horizontally. The panel is made of wooden slats, shown as red lines on a pink or, for some variants, yellow background. The protruding hinges can be seen clearly at both ends.

O34 : bolt





OccID = 3533
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 367 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This sign shows the bolt used to secure a door. Made of wood, or maybe copper, it could have been bound and sealed (see example from KV.62 in Tiradritti 1999, 198).  

O35 : combination of bolt O34 and legs walking D54





OccID = 2294
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 368 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

This composite sign shows the bolt with a pair of walking legs beneath it. Both signs are red and therefore respect the canon.

O36 : wall (occasionally written horizontaly)





OccID = 3239
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 369 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : inner green, wall blue

The wall is blue, probably made of mud-brick. It is either crenelated or niched and it appears to be protecting green cultivated land. A variant has s a white fill and fewer crenelations.

O38 : corner of wall





OccID = 3236
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 376 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : blue

This right-angled wall is blue, representing mud-brick.

O39 : stone slab or brick





OccID = 1291
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 370 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : white

This exemplar shows a block of stone. White is used here, not as a fill, but as the colour of fine limestone.

O39 : stone slab or brick





OccID = 1909
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 371 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : blue

This variant of O39 is blue and probably represents a mud-brick or a block of dark stone such as basalt or greywacke. This sign is a determinative for stone or brick.

O42 : fence outside primitive shrine





OccID = 1713
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 372 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red, white fill in loops

This sign shows a section of picket fence. It appears to be made entirely of wood (red). Badawy (1948, 54-55) thinks that the loops may be made of leather.  Variants have white fill either between the pickets or inside the loops to indicate empty space.

O44 : emblem erected outside the temple of Min





OccID = 2304
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 373 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : loop yellow, rest red

This sign shows an emblem erected outside the temple of Min. This exemplar appears to have an animal's head and horns on top of a pole, the whole piece being made of wood (red). A yellow loop of what looks like the coil of rope V1 is bound around one of the horns.

O47 : a prehistoric building at Hieraconpolis (Nekhen) (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 2117
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 374 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : enclosure and inner strokes blue, fill green

This sign is a symbol for the town of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). It shows an enclosure with two diagonal strokes inside. The enclosure is made of mud-brick (blue) and the inside appears to be green, showing cultivated ground. A variant has a white fill instead of green.

O48 : building at Nekhen (alternative form of O47)





OccID = 3468
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 375 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outer ring blue, strokes red, fill white

This alternative form of O47 is round, with the same pair of diagonal strokes inside. In this exemplar, the wall is blue mud-brick, the centre has a white fill indicating space and the two strokes are red. The significance of these strokes is unclear. One occurrence of O50 (Mon.52) is confused with this sign and shows the two strokes outside the outer ring.

O49 : village with crossroads





OccID = 1226
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 377 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : outer ring blue, triangles green with white fill

This sign is generic for a village or town. It shows a simplified plan of a village with an outer wall made of mud-brick (blue) and a green cross in the centre, also surrounded by blue walls. This green probably represents cultivated land. The empty spaces between the arms of the cross are indicated by a white fill. Small variations in the patterning occur and the cross can also be white or yellow. This could indicate the crossroads referred to in Gardiner's description.

O50 : circular threshing-floor covered with grain





OccID = 2086
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 378 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow floor, grain red dots, outer ring red

This sign shows a threshing floor with the grain indicated by red dots. Some occurrences colour the floor in yellow, either indicating packed earth or simply the golded colour of a heap of grain. Some variants have a blue (mud-brick) outer ring. Others have a pale floor.

O51 : heap of grain on a raised mud floor





OccID = 1440
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 379 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : floor blue(?), grain yellow with red dots

This sign probably shows a heap of grain, similar to the threshing floor of O50, but seen from the side. The floor is made of mud-brick (blue) and the heap of grain is yellow with red dots. Variants can show two heaps of grain side by side.

O51 : heap of grain on a raised mud floor





OccID = 686
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 387 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outside of barn and doors blue, floor red, fill white

This variant of O51 shows the superstructure made of mud-brick which encloses the heap of grain. In fact it depicts a granary for storing grain rather than threshing it. Despite the important graphic differences, the context for all of the occurrences is Snwt - a granary (FCD 269).

O157* : divine emblem in booth (tent)





OccID = 1604
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 381 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : booth red, divine emblem yellow

This composite sign shows a booth, either made of wood (red) or of prestigious red cloth. The divine emblem is simply drawn in outline and coloured yellow (faded). The usual wound cloth is not shown (see R8).

Group P : Ships and Parts of Ships

Group P contains only eleven signs, plus two additional ones included here, of which eight have occurrences in the database (83%), all with images. The ships (or rather boats) are all clearly distinguishable by the shape of the hull and the deck superstructure. None of the boats with occurrences is an ocean-going vessel with full rigging.

The exemplar of P1, a simple boat, has a yellow hull, probably constructed of dried reeds or papyrus bundles. It is not made of wood as the scribe-painter has distinguished the wooden steering oar (red) from the hull (yellow). There is a green cabin on the deck, probably a temporary structure made out of freshly- cut vegetation : reeds or palm fronds. The boat floats on the water which is coloured blue.

The sacred bark P3 is a far more sophisticated vessel than P1. It is also coloured yellow so could be made from papyrus bundles, but would more likely be wood (possibly gilded). No attempt has been made to distinguish the superstructure from the hull but the water is coloured blue.

The boat or sacred bark P30 is a hybrid of the two previous signs. The hull which is yellow has a similar structure to P3, but the cabin is a red (wooden) structure with the same shape as that of P1. The boat also floats on blue water.

The bark of Sokar P128 is a quite sophisticated drawing. In fact, it is so detailed that the scribe-painter has sacrificed polychromy for precision (cf. the commentary on Q29). The entire bark has been sketched in red outline but has not been completed by any other colours, despite this inscription (Mon.52) being a fine example of the use of detailed polychromy.

Two exemplars of the sail P5 have been included in the palaeography as they show high variation. The first exemplar has the standard wooden (red) ladder-like mast (as in P6) and wooden spars. The sail is white, probably made of tough linen. The second exemplar does not have the runged ladder mast but has a single red (wooden) mast with what appear to be black ropes holding the red spars and the sail. The sail itself is shown as black woven material, presumably showing its tough nature.

The oar P8 is normally red as it is made of wood, but three occurrences have a blue blade. It is difficult to see why blue, which is normally a representation of earth, mud-brick or flint, could be used here. However, it could be a metaphor for the water into which it is dipped in the same way as some bird hieroglyphs have blue wings through association with the sky (cf. the commentary on Group G).

The mooring post P11 also presents a problem. One would expect something made of wood and therefore painted red but the single database occurrence found here is coloured blue. Unless this is some kind of hard stone object, it may also be a water metaphor as in P8.


P1 : boat on water





OccID = 1587
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 382 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : hull yellow, cabin green, rudder-oar red, water blue

This sign shows a simple Nile boat propelled downstream by the river's current. The water is blue. The hull is probably made from dried reeds (yellow). The steering oar is red (wood) and the cabin is green (probably a temporary reed shelter. Variants simplify the colour scheme by showing a yellow boat on blue water.

P3 : sacred bark (details vary considerably)





OccID = 3694
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 383 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : bark yellow, water blue

This sign shows a sacred bark. The details vary considerably, this exemplar being the most complex. The boat is all yellow (probably wood, possibly gilded) and the water is blue.

P5 : sail





OccID = 3030
Monument : Userhat TT.56 yellow background
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 384 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : mast and spars red, sail white

Thiss sign shows a white (probably linen) sail. The mast (the same as sign P6) is red as are the spars (indicating wood).

P5 : sail





OccID = 1817
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 385 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : spars red, sail black cross-hatching, ropes black

This variant of P5 shows a straight red wooden mast, but without the rungs of a ladder as seen in P6. The sail appears to be made of some tough woven material and is coloured black.

P6 : mast





OccID = 3787
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 386 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

This sign shows the mast of a ship with ladder rungs facilitating the climb into the riiging. The red colour represents wood.

P8 : oar (also often written horizontally)





OccID = 1484
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 388 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This sign for an oar is coloured red, indicating wood.

P8 : oar (also often written horizontally)





OccID = 1339
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 392 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : paddle black, handle red

Three occurrences (Mons.27, 33 and 57) have a blue blade. This is unlikely to indicate a substance other than wood, so is possibly a metaphor for the water into which the blade is dipped.

P11 : mooring post





OccID = 2065
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 389 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : blue

This sign shows a mooring post. It is unclear why blue is used here. It could be a metaphor for an association with water as in the second exemplar of P8.

P30 : boat, sacred bark (variation of P1)





OccID = 3125
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 390 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : boat yellow, cabin red, water blue

This sign shows a sacred bark. The yellow hull could either represent gold or dried reed (see P1). The red cabin could either be wood or red cloth. The water is blue.

P128 : sacred barque of Sokar





OccID = 3246
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 391 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outline red

This remarkably detailed sign has sacrificed colour for detail. The scribe-painter has preferred to simply sketch everything in red outline without filling in any of the colours (cf. Ex.Q29).

Group Q : Domestic and Funerary Furniture

This small group contains only seven signs plus one additional one included here, of which six have occurrences in the database (75%), all with images.

The seat Q1 occurs especially in the writing of the names of Osiris and Isis. In all of the database occurrences, it is always painted blue. This could be not only a representation of hard stone such as greywacke but also a metaphor for the underworld : the dark abode of the dead. It is curious that this seat is not the throne usually depicted in images of the seated Osiris, where the only plain blue part is the plinth on which the throne is set (e.g. Tiradritti 2008, 286) (see also the commentary on Aa11).

The stool Q3 is hardly ever drawn as in the typographic version, as a plain undecorated rectangle. Most occurrences have three yellow horizontal bands : one central and one at either end. The underlying material is woven reed, as can be clearly seen in the Old Kingdom occurrences. The yellow bands are probably cane used to stiffen the structure. The same colour scheme and patterning can be seen in the sign R4 : an offering mat seen from the side. This probably indicates that this stool is in fact a similar mat but seen from above (see also Wb I, 489, 3; FCD 86; Bonnamy and Sadek 2010, 209).

The additional sign found here - a funerary bier Q29 is another example of the sacrifice of polychromy for detail (cf Ex.P128). The sign, in an otherwise polychrome inscription (Mon.35), is simply drawn in red outline on a white background with fine details also picked out in red.


Q1 : seat





OccID = 2527
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 393 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : blue

This seat, or throne, is found especially in the names of Osiris and Isis but the plain blue colour does not correpond to that of the throne often seen in depictions of Osiris, as he sits in judgement over the dead. Therefore, the colour blue is probably linked metaphorically with the underworld and its darkness.

Q2 : portable seat (sometimes reversed)





OccID = 2115
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 394 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : back yellow, seat white, central band red with edges yellow

This sign seems to show some kind of ceremonial litter. The carrying poles are sometimes absent. The wooden or gilded yellow frame is draped in white cloth with a coloured central band. Variations show different colours, both for the cloth (red or blue) and for the band (white).

Q3 : stool of reed matting





OccID = 1261
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 395 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : green with yellow and red bands

This sign is hardly ever drawn as in the typographic version. It clearly depicts an object made of green reed matting with bands of yellow wood or cane. In fact it appears to be a reed mat, seen from above, rather than the traditional identification of a stool.

Q4 : head-rest





OccID = 2548
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 396 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This exemplar is of poor photographic quality but clearly shows that the head-rest is made of wood (red).

Q6 : coffin (form variable)





OccID = 2766
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 403 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow

This exemplar shows only the coffin lid. The colour is probably that of (gilded) wood. The same is true of all the occurrences. Only the outline of the structure differs (red, black or blue).

Q7 : brazier with flame rising from it





OccID = 2938
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 398 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This sign shows a red flame rising from a brazier which is also red either by association with the flame, or because a pot is used to contain the combustible. Variants colour the pot blue or black, like many ceramics.  

Q29 : Funerary bier?





OccID = 2106
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 399 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : drawing red, fill white

This complex sign for a funerary bier is sketched in red on a white fill. This is a similar use of colour to that of Ex.P128. Polychromy has been sacrificed in favour of precise detail.

Group R : Temple Furniture and Sacred Emblems

This group contains not only several very common signs but also some of the most complex. Gardiner’s group contains twenty-five signs of which twenty have database occurrences (80%). Eighteen of these have accompanying images.

R1 and R3 show offering tables. R1 appears to be made of stone with a blue base and white table-top (in one occurrence with red lines to indicate alabaster). The offerings are of round loaves of bread painted white with red markings, together with beer in a blue-topped, red-based ceramic jug. R3 has a wooden structure shown as yellow or red with a top made out of wooden slats. The jug is taller than in R1 and looks like the water jug W14, but the colouring of red base and blue top is the same. The bread in the exemplar is of the X2 kind which is baked in a red, earthenware mould.

The offering mat R4 is a common sign that shows a loaf X2 on a reed mat, similar to the one depicted in Q3. However, the loaf in these occurrences is mostly blue. The signification of blue for loaves is unclear (see the commentary on Group X). The mat is viewed sideways on but the structure of fresh, green-blue reeds with cross pieces of older yellow reeds or cane can still be clearly seen (for mat weaving techniques see Wendrich 2000, 261).

The divinity emblem R8, a very common sign, is nearly always yellow, often with the lower pole blue as is the tip of the flag. It appears to represent a flagpole with blue cloth wound around the base and yellow cloth around the upper part of the pole. The yellow cloth extends outwards at the top, forming a flag. It has a blue tip. That these colours here represent cloth is shown in several of the most detailed occurrences by marks of the binding. This blue and gold flag would have had strong solar, underworld and thus divine associations.

The Dd pillar R11 is a multi-coloured sign that, in the most detailed occurrences, shows alternate bands of gold, red, blue and green as well as four gold cross pieces at the top, sometimes with a white fill. The object originally depicted may have been a tree but it quickly took on the representation of the backbone of Osiris and was a symbol of stability and duration (Bonnamy and Sadek 2010, 776; FCD 325). Exactly why there are the multi-coloured bands remains obscure, although it is possible that the colours were believed to be the constituent parts of sunlight (cf. N28). This object is a frequent motif in Egyptian art throughout the pharaonic period.

The standard R12 is a sign that is frequently combined with others to form symbols of gods and goddesses (e.g. D29, G7, G26 etc.). It represents some kind of wooden platform that could hold an image of a divinity. It is always coloured red, representing wood. Sometimes a fold of cloth hangs behind the supporting pole. At the front is a white globular object that may be an ostrich egg. For a full discussion of the symbolism of ostrich eggs, see the commentary on H8 (see also Bailleul- LeSuer 2012, 132; Phillips 2000, 332-333).

The sign R14 shows a feather sprouting from the “loaf” X1, with two pieces of red cloth like the two ends of S29. It is a simplified version of R13 which shows a Horus-falcon next to the feather. The feather representing the falcon comes forth, not from a loaf of bread, but from the primaeval mound and confirms this interpretation of the blue sign X1 (see also the commentary on X1).

The pair of fossil belemnites R22 could represent a naturalistic image of belemnitida sp. (For detailed information, see the British Geological Survey site at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/time/Fossilfocus/belemnite.html). These common creatures were cephalopods that lived during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The pale central circle has, in this exemplar, details reminiscent of alabaster and could show a cross-section of the creature's rostrum with its "growth rings". As an emblem of Min, the belemnite represents either a thunderbolt or a phallus. Why two are shown in this hieroglyph is unclear.

The two bows R24 and R25 are symbols of the goddess Neith. R25 is a later, more detailed version of R24 and shows that the centre is some kind of cloth binding, forming a package. In the simpler version R24, this package is yellow, perhaps indicating linen, but in R25, it is blue with red binding. No conclusion can be reached as to its exact nature. The bows in both signs are coloured red, indicating wood.


R1 : table with loaves and jug





OccID = 1721
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 401 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : tabletop white, leg blue, bread yellow and white, jug upper blue, base red

This sign depicts an offering table which has a pale top and a  blue leg. It is unclear why the leg would be blue, but the white top with a red outline could indicate stone. This is confirmed by the occurrence from TT.343 - Mon.12, which has red wavy lines on a white ground : the representation of alabaster. One variant has a red leg and tabletop, representing wood. In all occurrences, the loaves of bread are white with red details : a common choice of colour for bread (see Ex.X4). The jug here is also typical (see Exs.W22 and W24) with a red base and blue upper half.

R3 : four-legged table with loaves and libation vase





OccID = 485
Monument : Benia TT.343
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1473 - 1400
ExemplarID = 400 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : table yellow with red outline, vases red lower blue upper

This sign shows a table with four legs, coloured yellow with a red outline.Variants have a red structure. Both colours probably indicate wood. The loaves here are faded blue or white in red earthenware moulds (see Ex.X2). The tall water jar has a red base and a blue top (see Ex.W14).

R4 : loaf X2 on a reed mat





OccID = 3916
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 402 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : mat green with yellow and red lashings, loaf pale underneath, top black

This sign depicts an offering mat with a centrally placed loaf in a bread mould. The mat is made of fresh green reeds with yellow and red centre and ends made from drier cane or some kind of cloth binding. This colour scheme is exactly the same as that used for the "stool" Q3 and confirms their common identification. The loaf is blue, like Ex.X1, and it appears to be placed in a faded red bread mould as in Ex.X2. Some variants show less detail.

R5 : censer for fumigation (misunderstood after O.K.)





OccID = 487
Monument : Benia TT.343
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1473 - 1400
ExemplarID = 404 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green with yellow knot

This sign shows a censer, but Gardiner notes that it became misunderstood after the Old Kingdom. In this exemplar, it resembles the whip V22. The censer is green with a yellow band like the occurrences of the whip. This does seem to confirm Gardiner's remark. However the context is clear : "child of the harem" - kAp.

R7 : bowl for incense with smoke rising from it





OccID = 2976
Monument : Userhat TT.56 yellow background
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 405 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This sign shows a bowl from which rises a flame or the smoke of burning incense. The bowl is red (an earthenware pot) and the flame is also red, indicating a flame rather than smoke.

R7 : bowl for incense with smoke rising from it





OccID = 3253
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 412 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : bowl red with horizontal stripes, smoke green with blue outline

This exemplar, a variant ofthe previous exemplar, shows greenish smoke with a blue outline, more in keeping with Gardiner's description. The red striped bowl probably depicts a crudely made earthenware pot for burning incense.

R8 : cloth wound on a pole, emblem of divinity





OccID = 3473
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 406 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : lower pole and tip of flag blue, upper pole and flag yellow with markings red

This common sign shows a pole with cloth wound around it. The simplest signs just show a golden yellow pole and flag, but the more detailed ones (as here) have the lower half as well as the tip of the flag wound in blue cloth.

R10* : combination of divinity emblem and T28 and feather





OccID = 110
Monument : Haremheb TT.78
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1352
ExemplarID = 407 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : feather and block red and white, nTr yellow

This rather crudely drawn composite sign shows the divinity emblem R8 in yellow but the ostrich feather H6 and the butcher's block T28 are simply sketched in red.

R11 : column indicating a bunch of stalks tied together





OccID = 1225
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 408 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : column yellow with blue or red stripes, yellow cross pieces

This sign depicts the "djed pillar", variously described as a tree without its branches, a bunch of stalks tied together or the backbone of Osiris (Wilkinson 1992, 164-165; LÄ I, 1100-1105). It is certainly emblematic of Osiris. The column shown here has stripes of yellow, green, blue and red but variants can show less detail. All of the occurrences have four cross-pieces and most of these are yelllow, as in this exemplar. Here also, the empty space between the cross-pieces is filled with white.

R12 : standard for carrying religious symbols





OccID = 2793
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 409 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : standard red, protruberence white

This sign shows the standard on which various gods or their emblems are placed (eg. Exs.D29, G7, G26 etc.).The standard is red and thus probably made of wood. There is a globular, white object at the front, which could be an ostrich egg.

R13 : falcon G5 on standard R14 with feather (O.K. to XII dyn.)





OccID = 1316
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 410 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : head white, feathers blue, leggings white, standard blue with white feather

This composite sign shows the falcon G5 perched on the standard R14 which is itself a symbolic writing of imnt - the West. The falcon is blue with a white head and underparts. The feet are red. The ostrich feather is white. The standard is represented by the loaf X1 in blue and two pieces of hanging cloth which appear to be blue but are maybe outlined in red.

R14 : abbreviation of falcon on standard R13





OccID = 2095
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 411 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : feather stem red, fill white, semi-circle blue, cloth red, fill white

This sign shows a symbolic standard meaning the West - imnt. The centre is a blue loaf X1, topped with an ostrich feather H6 which is white with a red outline. This sign alone reads imnty - the one of the West. Two ends of red cloth (S29 without the top) hang from the loaf. The empty space between them is represented by a white fill.

R15 : spear decked out as standard





OccID = 1858
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 413 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : spear red, vases yellow,details black

All of the occurrences of this sign vary considerably. The pole can be red, yellow or blue. The spear tip can be transparent, inexistant or blue. The platform yellow or blue etc. No conclusions, therefore, can at present be deduced from these occurrrences.

R17 : wig with fillet and plumes on pole





OccID = 3256
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 414 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outline drawing red

This exemplar is another case of the sacrifice of polychromy in favour of detail (cf. Exs.P128 and Q29). The sign has been meticulously drawn in red but no colour has been added.

R18 : wig with fillet and plumes on pole over irrigation channels N24 (variant of R17)





OccID = 3101
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 415 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : plumes green, wig alternate green and yellow, standard red, irrigation channels red(?)

The only clearly visible colours used in this complex sign are green for the plumes and part of the wig and red for the standard and some marks of the channels.

R19 : the was-sceptre S40 with fillet and feather





OccID = 2533
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 416 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : sceptre green, feather and fillet white with red markings

This sign shows the sceptre wAs S40, with an ostrich feather and fillet.  The ostrich feather and fillet are white with red outlines and details.The sceptre is green, as in all occurrences of S40. However, the symbolism of the use of green here is unclear (see also Ex.S40).

R21 : conventionalized flower (?) surmounted by horns (?)





OccID = 202
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 417 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow with black markings and black horns

This early exemplar shows a yellow flower and yellow arc with dark protruberances above. It is an emblem of the goddess Seshat (LÄ V, 884). The colour symbolism is unclear.

R22 : two fossil belemnites (?)





OccID = 2813
Monument : Nakht-Min TT.87
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1425
ExemplarID = 418 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : ends red, centre white

This sign is red with a pale centre in all occurrences. It could be a naturalistic image of two fossil belemnites (belemnitida sp.) as  the shape and colouring are typical of these creatures (see the commentary on R22).

R24 : two bows tied in a package (sometimes written vertically)





OccID = 2068
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 419 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : inner yellow, bows red

This sign, the emblem of the goddess Neith, shows two bows tied together. The red colour probably represents wood. The centre is yellow. This is a simplified version of R25.

R25 : two bows tied in a package (O.K. form of R24)





OccID = 1819
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 420 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : bows red, packaging blue with red binding

This sign, the Old Kingdom version of R24, shows more clearly that the centre is a package for holding the bows together. The package is blue, perhaps made of leather and the cloth binding is red. The bows are red, indicating wood.

Group S : Crowns, Dress, Staves, etc.

This group contains fifty signs, of which twenty-three (46%) have database occurrences, all with images.

Of all the hieroglyphic crowns (see Goebs 2001), that of Lower Egypt S3 is the most frequently encountered. It is always, unsurprisingly, painted red (the name of the crown is dSrt - “the red one”). Two of the occurrences have a yellow fill between the high rear of the crown and the loop that rises from the top middle. Both of these are Ramesside royal tomb occurrences, which explains the use of yellow in place of white. The use of a fill in this situation seems superfluous, especially as the crown itself must have been familiar to the elite.

The two crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt on a basket S6 are normally shown merged into one : the “pschent” - pA-sxmty. However, in this exemplar they are drawn separately. The crown of Upper Egypt is white and that of Lower Egypt is red. The basket V30 is canonical green. Apart from the latter exemplar, no individual white crown S1 occurrence has so far been recorded in the database, but when found it is highly likely that it will be all white (the name of the crown is HDt - “the white one” or “the brilliant one”).

The other crown represented here is the atef crown S8 - a high, conical structure somewhat similar to S1 but with an ornate topknot and two ostrich plumes on either side. In this case, but not always, two ram’s horns protrude from the base of the crown, marking it as an accoutrement of the god Amon. The single occurrence recorded here is from a “yellow background” Ramesside tomb (Mon.43) so the green colour given to the crown is a substitute for white (see chapter 8 - Diachrony). This is confirmed by the many images of Osiris wearing the crown that can be seen in wall-paintings (e.g. Hawass 2006, 89). In this exemplar, the ostrich plumes and horns are simply sketched in red outline. The exemplar of the atef crown may provide some information about the material used to make the white crown S1. The substitution of green for white can also be seen in this inscription (Mon.43) in the green linen seen in the clothing worn by the men in group A (A1, A2, A30, A51, A52, A313). This is significant as white is still used elsewhere, so the substitution of green for white is not mandatory. It is therefore possible that the crown was made of stiffened white linen. However, as no white (or red) crowns have survived in the archaeological record, this must remain pure speculation.

The heading “dress” in Gardiner’s classification covers several sub-categories, from jewellery and cylinder seals to clothing, cloth and footwear. Jewellery is represented here by the collar S12, a multi-coloured bead necklace, attached to a band of red cloth.

The cylinder seals S19 and S20 show the same object, but viewed from different angles. The colours used suggest a gold chain or a length of cord with a cylinder seal in white or blue, both of which can represent stone.

Clothing contains just one occurrence of the kilt S26 in red. This could be either prestigious cloth or maybe red-brown leather. The girdle knot S24, also in red or sometimes blue, would suggest a belt of either red cloth or blue leather.

This predilection for red cloth is best seen in the ubiquitous sign for a length of folded cloth S29 . This is the third most common sign in the database with 47 of the 48 occurrences (98%) being red. It is, in fact, an excellent marker for comparison with other red signs. It is somewhat surprising that a people who dressed almost exclusively in white linen should represent cloth in hieroglyphs by the red variety. Linen was notoriously difficult to dye permanently and this red variety was thus highly valued (Vogelsang-Eastwood 2000, 278). Prestigious red cloth therefore appears to have been foremost in the Egyptian mind. This choice of an archetype to represent a cognitive category is an example of “prototype categorisation” (Taylor 2003, 41-83). The powerful symbolic nature of red cloth for the Egyptians is evident from some passages in the Pyramid Texts. An extract from spell W 161 (PT 250 ; §268a-b) reads : “Unis is the one who says the great thing in the (Sun’s) heart on the festival of red linen” (Allen 2005, 42). An extract from spell W 165 (PT 254 ; §285d) reads : “you shall worship the Sun in his escape from fetters by means of the Great One’s aegis, which is his red linen” (Allen 2005, 44). Allen interprets the latter as being “A reference to the rising sun and the sky’s color at dawn” (2005, 63, note 53). Offerings of red cloth were made to the gods. Anubis is often shown with a red neckerchief. Goddesses are often depicted in long red robes.

Footwear is represented by two signs : a sandal S33, seen from above, and the ankh S34, identified by Gardiner as a sandal strap. Both occurrences of S33 are yellow, probably representing dried plant fibre, such as is found in surviving examples (e.g. Peck, 2013, 150, fig. 68). However, the ankh is always coloured dark blue or black, probably indicating symbolic polychromy.

The ankh S34 is one of the most frequent as well as one of the most intriguing hieroglyphs and has been the subject of much discussion and speculation. The sign, when used as an ideogram, means “a sandal strap”. The dark blue or black colouring does not correspond to the reality of woven plant fibre, but could represent leather, examples of which can be found in the archaeological record (Driel-Murray 2000). However, were the symbolic, metaphorical meaning to have more importance than the materialistic representation, then the designation “sandal strap” could still be correct. This same phenomenon can be seen in the sign for the “bad bird” G37 that is coloured red to represent danger or aggression (see the commentary on G37). The word anx can also mean “a mirror”. However, it is difficult to reconcile this identification with the use of a white fill to represent empty space. This way of showing a loop can be clearly seen in the many images of gods who hold the ankh sign with their fingers passing through the loop (e.g. Tiradritti 2008, 287; 291). Another suggestion for an identification is that of a bull’s thoracic vertebra (Schwabe et al. 1982). The hollow loop is present in the vertebra, but the many detailed images of ankh signs often show some kind of woven fibre. Also, the colour blue-black does not correspond to the colour of cattle bones. Baines (1975, 1-24) has suggested a belt looped around the hips, with an attached penis-sheath. This would be possible but unlikely, given the differences between the sign and the proposed object. The colour blue also makes this identification difficult. This leaves us with a metaphorical use of colour, whatever the correct identification of the object. Dark blue or black have multiple associations including the underworld, Nile silt, the flood, fertility, (re)birth, the land of Egypt etc. They all, in some way, contribute to the theme of life as seen in the many lexemes that use the sign (FCD 43-44; Wb I, 193-205). However, the association between the metaphor and the object, together with the exact ritual significance, remains an enduring mystery.

The final sub-category in Gardiner’s group S is “staves”. This includes walking-sticks, staves, crooks and sceptres. The most obvious use of colour here is for the walking-stick S43, which is always red or yellow. Both of these colours can represent wood, which seems to be the case here. The crook S38, part of the royal regalia, is probably a ceremonial reduced-size version of the larger shepherd’s crook S39 (no database occurrences). As a ceremonial object, the colours yellow and blue indicate gold, or gilded wood with bands of blue inlay, just as for those found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (KV.62) (e.g. Tiradritti 1999, 228-229). The sceptre sekhem S42, symbol of power, is also yellow, representing wood, possibly gilded. The word sxm can also be written with the determinative for wood M3 (FCD 241).

One of the most interesting sceptres recorded in the database is the wAs S40. This appears, at least originally, to be a kind of shepherd’s crook with a forked base for trapping animals. The handle at the top is often represented as the head of the “Seth-animal”. The unusual aspect here is the use of blue-green for the whole sign. It is difficult to see why a colour normally symbolising growth, vegetation, fresh plant fibre etc. should be used here. The same colour is used in the similar sign for a wAs sceptre with a filet and feather R19. The metaphorical symbolism is obscure.


S3 : red crown of Lower Egypt





OccID = 2864
Monument : Paroy TT.295
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 426 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

Unsurprisingly, this sign is coloured red in all occurrences. Variants can show a yellow fill (Ramesside) between the rear of the crown and the loop.

S6 : combined white and red crowns S5 in basket V30





OccID = 3334
Monument : Karnak Room XII
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Karnak
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut
Approximate date : 1473 - 1458
ExemplarID = 421 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : white crown white, red crown red, basket green

In this exemplar, the two crowns, red and white, are shown separately. The basket is green (see Ex.V30).

S8 : the atef-crown





OccID = 2681
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 428 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : main crown green, feathers red, horns green

This sign shows the Atef crown. The colours used here are typical of Ramesside "yellow background" inscriptions (see Diachrony). Red is used to outline the ostrich feathers but the normal white fill has been omitted. The crown itself is green, probably a substitute for white or yellow.

S10 : band of cloth as fillet





OccID = 3261
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 427 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : cloth red, tie white

This sign shows a fillet of red cloth tied in a bow at the back. A variant from the same monument shows the cloth as white.

S12 : collar of beads





OccID = 1341
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 423 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blue with red cord

This sign shows a collar of beads. The collar tie is red cloth and the beads are blue. Other occurrences show variation in the colouring of the beads (green, red and blue) but the cord used to tie the collar is always red.

S19 : cylinder seal attached to bead necklace





OccID = 1457
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 424 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : necklace and seal yellow with red outline

This sign shows a cylinder seal on a necklace. Variants can have darker dots on the necklace, indicating beads but this exemplar shows what could be a gold chain or cord. There is a white fill to show empty space inside the loop. The seal here is white and yellow with a red outline, probably representing stone. Variants can have a blue seal, another colour used for stone.

S20 : cylinder seal attached to bead necklace (seen from front)





OccID = 2298
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 425 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : necklace yellow, crosspiece green with ends yellow and red, seal red

This sign is another representation of a cylinder seal and necklace (cf. Ex.S19). The necklace is again yellow with a white fill. There is a red piece at the end to prevent the seal from falling off. This seal appears to be of high quality with green stone and gold ends. Variants have a blue seal.

S23 : knotted strips of cloth





OccID = 3038
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 429 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : loop green, flabella yellow, markings red

This sign shows the looped cord V9 with two crossed flabella S45. The latter are yellow with red details, probably representing (gilded) wood. The cord is green as are most ropes made from plant fibre (cf. Exs.V13 and V28).

S24 : girdle knot





OccID = 1251
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 431 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : knot and tie green, yellow fill

This sign shows a girdle knot. The two cords at each end of the knot are  joined. The cord is blue, probably indicating leather. The spaces between the cords are yellow. This monument (KV.57 - Mon.25) only uses white as a fill colour so this may be representative of some material (gold coloured?).

S24 : girdle knot





OccID = 1424
Monument : Huy TT.54
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 430 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : girdle (open-ended) yellow, red outline

This variant of the knotted cord shows a golden or red knot with open ends.

S26 : apron or kilt





OccID = 625
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 432 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This sign shows an apron or a kilt. The red colour could either represent prestigious cloth or maybe leather. It should be noted that all other representations of the kilt (cf. most group A signs) are white.

S27 : horizontal strip of cloth with two strands of a fringe





OccID = 162
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 433 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : outline red, fill white

This early exemplar of two strips of cloth is quite faded, but traces of red along the edges can still be seen. Another early variant has yellow cloth.

S27* : as S 27 with cloth tie-bag in centre





OccID = 1579
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 435 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : cloth red, linen bag blue outline

This sign shows the same strips of cloth as S27 with the addition of a blue or black outlined linen bag. The cloth is red indicating the prestigious variety (cf. Ex.S29).

S29 : folded cloth





OccID = 1443
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 436 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This very common sign for a bolt of cloth is nearly always red, indicating the presigious variety offered to the gods (see the commentary on S29).

S29 : folded cloth





OccID = 2857
Monument : Paroy TT.295
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 440 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red, fill white

This variant of S29 has a white fill in the loop. The fill is delineated by a fine red line that joins the two ends. This line always slopes downwards giving the impression of a flowering reed (M17), which may have influenced the graphism.

S32 : piece of cloth with fringe





OccID = 3594
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 437 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : cloth green with blue lines, fringe blue

This sign shows a piece of cloth with a fringe. The cloth is green with interwoven blue and a blue fringe.

S33 : sandal





OccID = 3818
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 438 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

This sign shows a sandal, seen from above. Yellow probably represents either leather or some form of dried plant fibre. Variants have red or white parts.

S34 : tie or strap, sandal strap, symbol of life





OccID = 3480
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 439 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : dark blue, fill white

This enigmatic yet common sign is always blue or black, often with a white fill in the loop. The dark blue used could indicate an association with the underworld or with the fertile Nile silt. See the Group commentary on S34 for a discussion.

S35 : sunshade of ostrich feathers





OccID = 3918
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 441 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : handle yellow, feathers white, tips green or blue

This delicately painted exemplar shows an ostrich feather sunshade or fan. The handle is yellow, probably representing (gilded) wood. The feathers, picked out with darker lines, have blue tips.

S38 : crook





OccID = 2477
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 442 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : yellow with bands blue

This sign shows a crook, part of the royal regalia. This exemplar is detailed with alternate blue and gold bands, exactly like the ones found in KV.62 (Tutankhamun). Variants have less detail but can have a white fill in the top of the crook.

S40 : sceptre with straight shaft and head of Seth-animal (see too R19)





OccID = 3763
Monument : Ay KV.23
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Ay
Approximate date : 1327 - 1323
ExemplarID = 443 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : sceptre green, fill white

This sign shows the sceptre wAs. As with R19 (the same sceptre with a filet and plume), it is green. This exemplar has a white fill in the base indicating empty space.

S42 : sceptre of authority (various forms)





OccID = 2722
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 444 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow

This sign shows a sceptre, probably made of gilded wood (yellow). Variants have blue bands on the handle, similar to those on the crook S38.

S43 : walking-stick





OccID = 2054
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 445 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This sign for a walking stick is red or yellow, indicating wood.

S45 : flagellum





OccID = 3775
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 446 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow, markings red

The sign shows the flagellum, part of the royal regalia. This exemplar is yellow with red binding. It shows an object made of gold or gilded wood (cf. Ex.S23).

S57 : "nemes" headdress





OccID = 3260
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 447 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : head cloth white, outline and neck extension red

This sign shows a headcloth or "nemes" in profile. The cloth is white for the head with a red neck extension. The outline is also red. This colour scheme is intentional and is not a graphic error, as the sign is found several times on this monument (Mon.52).

Group T : Warfare, Hunting, Butchery

This group contains thirty-six signs, of which twenty-seven (75%) have database occurrences, twenty-one with images. This grouping of warfare, hunting and butchery is logical as it is essentially a collection of arms, used in a similar fashion but in different contexts.

T1, T3, T4, T5 and T6 all represent maces : weapons used for crushing the skull of an enemy, as seen in the iconic pharaonic pose of ritual slaughter (e.g. Tiradritti 1999, 41). T1 is a type found in predynastic Naqadan contexts and has a stone disk with a hole for attaching it to a handle (Hoffmeier 2001, 407). The exemplar found here is all yellow, either representing a gilded ceremonial mace or one in which the stone and the wooden shaft have the same colour. It is more likely to be a ceremonial object as this occurrence is from the Dynasty XVIII tomb of Rekhmire (Mon.39). The more recent type, exemplified by T3, has a wooden (red) or gilded (yellow) shaft and a round stone head, coloured white. The sign also reads HD “white” or “brilliant”. T4 has a loop of cloth tied around the shaft to improve the grip, but is otherwise the same as T3. T5 and T6 combine T3 with I10 serpents.

The axe T7 is the archaic type used for hewing wood as well as a battle axe (EG 511, T7 note 1). The shaft is yellow (wood) and the axe blade is black, probably indicating flint or obsidian (Aston 2000, 46-47).

T9, T10, T11 and T12 concern archery. The colours used reflect the construction material : red or yellow for wood, yellow for the bow string and black for the arrow flights. Interestingly, in the exemplar shown here, the arrow has no arrowhead, perhaps to avoid injury to the person reading the inscription (cf. the missing head and sting of the scorpion L7).

The harpoon T19 provides an interesting use of yellow to represent bone. The sign can in fact be used as a determinative or phoneme for qs “bone” (Wb V, 68). The other, more elaborate, harpoon T21 has a red wooden shaft and a black tip, probably made of flint.

The arrows T22 and T23 are nearly always entirely red. This is probably as a metaphor for danger and aggression, as a wooden arrowhead would not be particularly efficient. One occurrence of T22 does however have a blue tip which would indicate a flint arrowhead.

The butcher’s block T28 presents some difficulty for its identification. Gardiner justifies the description of a butcher’s block only by comparison with T29 (no database occurrence) which shows a knife T30 positioned above T28. However, this does not constitute a proof as the same kind of juxtaposition of the knife and the legs seen in T32 in no way connects the two signs in this manner. Furthermore, the components of the block, together with their different colours, render any explanation difficult. In the exemplar shown here, there appears to be an outer structure in dark blue. This could be stone or dried mud. Inside, surrounded by a white fill, there is a red core, with a characteristic shape of a rectangle drawn in at the centre. This could be a drain for the blood. Variants mostly comply with this colour scheme. However, no such object can be seen in the many wall paintings depicting the slaughter and butchery of animals (e.g. Tiradritti 2008, 144-146).

The signs T18, T30, T31, T32 and T34 show knives or knife sharpeners. The distinction is often unclear. Knives can be red as a symbol of danger and aggression or as a representation of copper. Knife sharpeners (T31 and T32) are green, probably depicting some kind of hard stone or else through confusion or association with the basket V31 with which T32 shares its outline. In fact most of the database occurrences of T32 appear to show the basket rather than a sharpener. The butcher’s knife T34 is red or green, possibly as a representation of copper. It can also have a red or a blue handle. Blue may represent leather and red can be wood. T18 is a complex, composite sign with several elements. Some sort of package is lashed to a crook, with a knife or a sharpener protruding from the top. In this exemplar, it appears to be a sharpener, as it is green. Below the package is a red protuberance, perhaps a knife, but in this case interpreted as a foot, probably as a reference to the reading of the sign as Sms “follow” (Wb IV, 482-487). Perhaps an early function of a pharaoh’s court was that of ceremonial knife sharpener (cf. EG 513, note 1)?


T1 : prehistoric mace with cup- or dish-shaped head





OccID = 2380
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 448 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow

This sign shows a mace with a broad flat head. It is coloured yellow which wood suggest wood, but a mace would need a heavier head. Either this is a ceremonial gilded mace or the head is made of yellow stone.

T3 : mace with pear-shaped head (vertical)





OccID = 2314
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 450 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : handle yellow, head white

This sign shows a mace with a large, rounded head. The shaft is yellow, indicating wood, or gilded wood. The head is white, representing stone. This exemplar also has a yellow line which bisects the head. This could be some sort of fibre binding, holding the head in place or else an extension of the handle that passes through the middle of the stone.

T4 : mace T3 with a strap to pass around hand





OccID = 3467
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 449 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : mace head white, handle yellow with horizontal lines and outline red, strap white

This signs also shows the mace T3, but with a strap looped around the centre of the handle. The shaft is yellow with horizontal red lines, indicating wood or gilded wood. The mace head is white representing stone. The carrying strap is white, probably representing linen. A variant has a red strap, showing the more prestigious kind of died cloth, or maybe leather.

T5 : combination of mace T3 and serpent I10





OccID = 2101
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 451 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : serpent yellow with back and features black, mace yellow with white head

This compoiste sign shows the mace T3 together with the serpent I10. Both signs are canonically coloured. The mace is yellow with a white head. The serpent is yellow with red spots on its belly and a black back.

T6 : combination of mace T3 and two serpents I10





OccID = 2661
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 452 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : serpents green, mace blue

This sign, similar to T5, shows two serpents. However, the strong yellow background, typical of the Ramesside period (see Diachrony), results in the serpents being green and the mace blue.

T7 : axe





OccID = 205
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 453 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow, lashings and blade black

This sign shows an axe. The handle is yellow, indicating wood. The axe head is black indicating flint.

T9 : bow consisting of oryx horns joined by a wooden centre-piece





OccID = 3278
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 454 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This sign shows an archaic bow. The whole sign is red, indicating wood rather than having horns at both ends. However, this is from a Dynasty XXII inscription (Mon.52) so the actual object would have disappeared long before in favour of the composite bow T10.

T10 : composite bow with middle tied to bow-string when out of use





OccID = 3817
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 456 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : yellow

This sign shows a composite bow, in use at least from Dynasty XII (EG 511). Although faded, a close visual inspection shows this sign to be yellow, which would indicate wood with a fibre or leather bow-string (cf. Ex.T12).

T11 : arrow





OccID = 206
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 457 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : yellow shaft, red outline, black flights

This early exemplar shows an arrow without its head. The shaft is yellow indicating wood and the flights are black. Another occurrence (Mon.17) from the same period (Dynasty IV) also omits the arrowhead.

T12 : bow-string





OccID = 2433
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 458 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

This sign shows a bow-string. It is clearly a cord made from plant fibre (yellow with red marks showing the braiding). Variants have green, blue and black for the string. Green and blue can also be used for cord made from plant fibre.

T14 : throw-stick, or club as a foreign weapon of warfare





OccID = 3266
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 459 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

This sign shows a throw-stick or club. It is red, indicating wood.

T18 : crook S39 with a package containing a knife etc. lashed to it





OccID = 3268
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 460 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : shaft blue, knife green, bundle red, leg red

This complex sign has several elements. There are no database occurrences for the crook S39, so no comparison can be made. This crook is blue here. In the middle is some kind of box, made of wood (red) and lashed to the crook. The knife is more likely to be the knife sharpener T31, as it is green and not red (cf. Exs.T30 and T31). Underneath the box is an appendage which, in this case has been interpreted by the scribe as a foot, probably as a reference to the word Sms "follow" and its derivatives which can include the legs hieroglyph D54 as a determinative  (Wb IV, 482-487). A variant shows the entire sign as red.

T19 : harpoon head of bone





OccID = 1605
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 461 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow with blue/black outline

This sign (here repeated twice) shows a bone harpoon. The bone is yellow. That this signifies bone is confirmed by the use of T19 as a determinative for the word qs - bone (Wb V, 68).  

T21 : one-barbed harpoon





OccID = 3267
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 462 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : shaft red, head blue, rope blue(?)

This sign shows a harpoon. The shaft is red, representing wood. The rope is green or blue. The head is dark blue which could indicate flint.Variants have yellow rope, sometimes wound around the shaft. The head is sometimes red, probably as a symbol of danger and aggression.

T22 : two-barbed arrow-head





OccID = 3695
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 463 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This sign shows a simple two-barbed arrow-head. Most occurrences are entirely red, probably a symbol for danger and aggression. One variant has a blue tip (flint?), whereas another appears to be inexplicably all green (copper?).

T23 : two-barbed arrow-head (XVIII dyn. Alternative form





OccID = 2860
Monument : Paroy TT.295
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 465 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This sign shows another style of arrow-head with a pointed tip and a bulbous head. As in T22, most occurrences are all red. Variants show the bulbous part as white or yellow.

T28 : butcher's block





OccID = 1737
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 466 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : outline black, corners blue, fill white, centre red

This sign shows a butcher's block. There is an outer structure coloured blue or black that supports a wooden block (red). The space sorrounding the block is filled in white.

T30 : knife





OccID = 2384
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 468 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

This sign shows a knife, coloured red. This could either be a symbol of danger and aggression or a representation of copper.

T31 : knife sharpener(?)





OccID = 3287
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 469 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green

This sign, often confused with the knife T30 shows a knife sharpener. In this unique database occurrence, it is coloured green, probably indicating some sort of hard stone.

T32 : combination of knife sharpener T31 and walking legs D54





OccID = 3778
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 470 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : sharpener green, legs red

This composite sign shows the knife sharpener T31 with a pair of walking legs D54 underneath. The legs are red as always for D54. The knife sharpener is green as in Ex.T31. This could also be due to confusion with the basket V31.

T34 : butcher's knife





OccID = 2482
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 471 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This butcher's knife is all red, either symbolising danger and aggression or representing a copper knife with a wooden handle.One variant (Mon.57) has a green blade, as for the knife sharpeners T31 and T32, but with a blue handle.

Group U : Agriculture, Crafts ans Professions

This group contains forty-three signs, of which twenty-nine (67%) have database occurrences, twenty-four with images.

The agricultural tools provide an interesting contrast. The sickles U1, U3 and U4 are green or green-blue, whereas the hoes U6, U7 and U8 are all red. This must, surely, reflect the use to which these tools are put. The green sickles have a metaphorical association with fresh growth and vegetation. The red hoes are probably just images of wooden tools with no metaphorical symbolism. The sickle U2, however, is yellow which could indicate either an association with ripened emmer or simply wood. The exemplar shown here also has pieces of black flint along the cutting edge.

The association of green with fresh vegetation can also be seen in the corn-measure U9 which has a stream of corn grains pouring out. The grains are coloured green rather than the yellow that would be expected for ripened cereal. This could represent abundance.

Many of the tools in group U are red or have red handles. This clearly represents wood. Examples are the sledge U15, the adze U19, the handle of the chisel U22 and the pestle U33. Red can also represent copper, as seen in the blade of the chisel U23. Blue or black represent hard stone, such as in the base of the fire-drill U28 or the fuller’s club U36. The different uses of these colours can help in the identification of the separate parts of some of the more complex signs such as the drill U24* which appears to have a curved wooden handle to produce rotation, a bound plant fibre ring for steadying the drill and a copper drill bit.


U1 : sickle





OccID = 1738
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 472 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green

This sickle is green, showing an association between the tool and the vegetation which it cuts.

U2 : sickle (alternative form of U1)





OccID = 1529
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 473 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow with blue or black outline and teeth on blade

This alternative version of U1 is yellow, representing wood or by association with ripened cereal. It has black teeth on the lower curved piece indicating pieces of flint which provide the cutting edge.

U3 : combination of sickle U1 and eye D4





OccID = 2501
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 474 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : sickle green, eyeball white, outline yellow, iris black

This composite sign shows the sickle U1 enclosing the eye D4. The sickle conforms with the canonical colouring of U1. The eye is similar to some variants of D4 with a dark (faded) outline, a white scelera and a black iris. However, the occurrence of D4 from the same monument (Mon.41) has a red iris. The signification is unclear. As in D4, variants have a red iris.

U4 : combination of sickle U1 and plinth Aa11





OccID = 3271
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 475 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : sickle green, plinth blue

This composite sign of the sickle U1 and the plinth Aa11 conforms to the canon for the colouring of both signs. The sickle is green and the plinth blue. One variant has a red plinth (Mon.39).

U6 : hoe





OccID = 3060
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 476 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : hoe red, rope yellow

This sign shows the hoe. It is made of wood (red) with a rope (yellow) binding the two pieces together. Variants have blue, green or yellow rope and one has a white fill.

U7 : hoe (alternative form of U6)





OccID = 1346
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 477 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red, rope yellow

This sign, which differs from U6 only by the more horizontal position, shows two pieces of wood (red) with yellow rope binding them together. Variants have green or blue rope and some have a white fill.

U8 : hoe without the rope connecting the two pieces





OccID = 2925
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 478 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

This simpler representation of the hoe U7 is red, indicating wood. There is no rope binding the two pieces together but there appears to be a loop at the end of the upper piece that fulfils that function. A variant has a white fill between the two pieces.

U9 : corn-measure with grain pouring out





OccID = 1921
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 479 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : measure yellow, corn green

This sign shows a recipent for measuring corn. It is coloured yellow with red bands, which could represent a wooden or canework container. The grains of corn are coloured green, by association with growth and vegetation, as ripe corn would be coloured yellow.

U15 : sledge





OccID = 2056
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 480 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red, fill white

This sledge, used for transporting heavy loads such as blocks of stone, is made of wood (red). It has two parallel runners with reinforcing cross-pieces. A coil of rope is fixed to the front to facilitate dragging the sledge. One variant has yellow rope but all others are red. This exemplar has a white fill but other variants can omit this feature.

U17 : pick excavating a pool N38





OccID = 2389
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 481 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : pick red, pool blue

The pick, similar to the hoe U8, is made of wood (red). The pool is blue. Blue could also represent Nile silt, in which case this sign may show a hoe working the land.

U19 : adze





OccID = 2913
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 482 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This adze is made of wood (red) with a yellow blade (possibly stone?). A variant shows the whole tool as yellow which could represent a wooden handle with a stone blade.

U21 : adze at work on a block of wood





OccID = 1260
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 483 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : black

This sign shows much variability. The shaft can be black, blue, red or yellow. The blade, when present, can be blue (Dynasty VI) or yellow (Dynasty XVIII). This difference is probably due to the blade being made of flint during earlier times and stone or copper later on. The block of wood can be black, white or red, reflecting differences in the material being worked. The use of the different colours for this sign remains obscure

U22 : chisel





OccID = 127
Monument : Haremheb TT.78
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1352
ExemplarID = 484 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : handle red, point blue

This chisel has a wooden handle (red) and a green-blue blade. Variants can have a yellow blade. Blue indicates flint and green or yellow copper.

U23 : chisel (?)





OccID = 1742
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 485 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blade(?) red, handle green with yellow band

This chisel has a green handle with a yellow band and a red blade. The green handle is probably some kind of stone and the red blade is copper. This sign displays an interesting evolution. In Dynasty III, the handle is yellow (wood) and the blade black (flint). In Dynasty IV, the handle becomes green (stone) and the blade blue (flint). From Dynasty XVIII onwards, at the latest, the blade becomes red (copper).

U24 : stone-worker's drill weighted at the top with stones (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 1348
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 486 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : drill yellow, head blue

This drill hase a wooden handle (red or yellow?) with a yellow blade attached, probably of copper. There is a blue loop at the top, which may indicate the stone weight. Variants have a red (copper) or blue (flint) blade.

U24* : drill with square weight





OccID = 1885
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 487 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : handle red, weight green with yellow band, shaft red with green lashing

This modified version of the drill U24 has a handle of green with a yellow band. This may be a bundle of stalks bound together around the shaft to facilitate the rotation of the drill. The drill itself has a red (wooden) handle curved at the tip to enable rotation. The lower part, lashed to the shaft with green fibre, has a red (copper) drill bit.

U26 : drill being used to bore a hole in a bead (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 2693
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 488 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : drill holder green, outline blue, bit and bead red(?)

This drill, simpler than U 24 and U24*, has a green handle, either of stone or of plant fibre as in U24*. It has a red drill bit of copper. The bead is white. A variant has a white handle (of stone?).

U28 : fire-drill (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 3275
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 489 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : drill red, base blue

This fire drill has a red (wooden) shaft which was rapidly rotated in a hollowed out base. This base is coloured blue, probably indicating some hard stone, like flint. Variants can have a yellow shaft (also wood) and a white (stone) or red (wooden) base.

U29 : fire-drill (O.K. form of U28)





OccID = 1442
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 490 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : base blue(?), drill yellow with two red oblique lines

This earlier version of the fire-drill U28 shows the same colour scheme of red or yellow shaft and a blue base. This exemplar has diagonal red striations around the shaft. These could be the marks left by a bow-string when using this technique to rotate the drill.

U30 : potter's kiln





OccID = 696
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 492 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : kiln blue, upper and lower parts red

This representation of a kiln has a blue structure depicting dried alluvial mud-brick. At the base and at the top can be seen red flames.

U32 : pestle and mortar





OccID = 1569
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 493 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : pestle red, mortar green

The red pestle is made of wood or copper. The mortar is green which probably represents some kind of hard green stone. A variant shows the pestle as yellow with red dots which could also be a representation of stone or wood. The thin end to the pestle favours the use of wood.

U33 : pestle





OccID = 2394
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 495 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The pestle on its own is also red, indicating wood, especially with the tapered end (cf. Ex.U32).

U36 : club used by fullers in washing





OccID = 165
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 496 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

This club for beating clothing while washing it is black or blue for all periods. This probably indicates hard stone. One variant has a red (wooden) handle.

U38 : balance





OccID = 3276
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 497 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red outline drawing

This is another example of a complex sign that has sacrificed colour in favour of increased detail by simply sketching the scales in red (cf. Exs.P128 and Q29).

U40 : post of balance - semi-hieratic alternative to U39 (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 3702
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 498 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : black

This sign is the hieratic equivalent of U39, part of the scales U38, and as such is simply drawn in black.

Group V : Rope, Fibre, Baskets, Bags, etc.

This group contains thirty-nine signs, plus two additional variants, of which thirty-three (80%) have database occurrences, twenty-eight with images. The group contains some very common hieroglyphs.

Many signs in group V can have several different colours, showing high diachronic variation. As has been demonstrated (see Diachrony), signs such as the baskets V30 and V31, as well as the signs for rope such as V13 and V28, evolve from yellow to green, with some variants of red or blue (as substitutes for yellow and green).

The earliest forms of the group V signs show much detail. For Mon.6, the Dynasty IV stele of Wepemnofret, the signs V4, V6, V13, V30 and V31 all show the method of manufacture of the rope and of the baskets. The fibre used is dried, as shown by the colour yellow. Later occurrences become green, showing either fresh plant fibre, or a metaphorical association with growth and abundance. The latter is more probable as even fresh plant fibre would have quickly turned yellow or brown in the dry climate of Egypt. For more detail on the materials and techniques involved, see Wendrich (2000).

The tethering rope V14 presents an interesting case as it is the only hieroglyph with a diacritical mark. The significance is unclear, especially as there is little discernible difference in use between V14 and V13. Gardiner suggests that it represents the consonant T where it has not evolved into t but has kept the original pronunciation (EG 523). That this is a true diacritical mark and not just some appendage can be seen clearly in this exemplar, as the black dot is separated from the tether and is of a different colour.

The sign V16 shows a looped cord used for immobilising animals. Gardiner suggests cattle but I have personally witnessed this exact method of immobilising sheep at a Silk Road market in Western China. The sheep’s necks are placed in the loops with their heads facing one another and their rear ends facing outwards. In this way a small herd can be kept together, unmoving, whilst awaiting sale or slaughter. The hobble for cattle V20 and its derivative V21 are on the contrary made of wood (as they are coloured red) and are for immobilising individual animals.

The whip V22 and its Old Kingdom version V23 are made from plant fibre and show the same evolution from yellow to green of rope and basketry. The exemplar of V23 is quite detailed and allows us to see the coiling of the fibre to form a handle.

The sign V25 shows string wound onto a stick. The stick is red and the string yellow, showing it to be a coarser variety than the white thread shown in the sign for a weaver’s shuttle V26.

There is some confusion between the wickerwork frail V3 and the sign W8, identified by Gardiner as a deformation of the granite bowl W7 (EG 528). The unique database occurrence shown here is difficult to reconcile with the choice of Müller (1940, 111) who prefers to read W8. Yet the context is clear - it is the phonetic determinative used in the word Abw “Elephantine". V32 is either a kind of basket or a hippopotamus hunter's wickerwork float (EG 526). This seems far more likely for this exemplar. In fact it appears to be a bundle of blue reeds, lashed together with faded yellow rope. For this reason, it has been classified here as V32 rather than Müller’s W8.


V1 : coil of rope





OccID = 3703
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 499 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This coil is red or in some variants yellow, representing rope.

V2 : combination of rope V1 and bolt O34





OccID = 2396
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 501 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : bolt red, cord yellow

This composite sign shows the bolt O34, always red, with a coil of rope V1 (red or yellow) wound around the centre.

V4 : lasso





OccID = 167
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 507 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow

This detailed exemplar clearly shows this lasso as being made of twisted plant fibre. This rope can also be green, showing the use of fresher vegetation.

V5 : looped rope





OccID = 2699
Monument : Nefersekheru TT.296
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 503 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green, fill white

This length of symmetrically coiled rope is green with a white fill. However, green here may be a substitute for yellow, as this monument (Mon.43) is a Ramesside "yellow background" inscription (see Diachrony).

V6 : cord (in early exx. doubled and looped at top left)





OccID = 3428
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 504 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow, markings red

This is another early detailed depiction of rope (cf. Ex.V4). It is yellow with red markings indicating dried plant fibre. Variants can be red or green. One variant has a white fill.

V7 : loop of cord with the ends downward





OccID = 3293
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 505 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : green

Again, this representation of rope can be yellow or green, depending on the plant fibre used in its manufacture (fresh or dried).

V9 : cartouche in original round form





OccID = 1609
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 506 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green

As a representation of a looped and knotted cord, this sign is green, indicating fresh plant fibre.

V12 : band of string or linen





OccID = 2397
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 508 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : white (or faded?)

Though faded, this exemplar is still clearly white with a red outline. It therefore represents a strip of linen rather than rope.

V13 : rope for tethering animals





OccID = 3831
Monument : Temple of Sety I - Abydos
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Sety I
Approximate date : 1294 - 1279
ExemplarID = 509 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green

This rope is green, representing fresh plant fibre. Variants can be red, yellow or blue.

V14 : rope for tethering animals V13 with a diacritical tick





OccID = 3706
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 523 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red, dot black

This sign, a variant of V13, has a black dot at the upper rear end. The rope here is red, but a variant is green with a green diacritical mark.

V15 : combination of rope for tethering animals V13 and legs walking D54





OccID = 2399
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 524 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : rope green, legs red

This composite sign shows a green version of V13, representing fresh plant fibre rope, above two walking legs D54, red as in all occurrences of this sign.

V16 : looped cord serving as hobble for cattle





OccID = 736
Monument : Iunu G4150
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 599 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow, red outline

This hobbling device is made fom looped cord (yellow). It was probably used to immobilise sheep or goats rather than cattle (see the commentary on V16).

V17 : rolled-up herdsman's shelter of papyrus (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 1208
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 511 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : papyrus green, binding yellow, fill white

The rolled-up papyrus stalks are naturally green and are bound together by a yellow cord. A white fill covers the space between the stalks.

V20 : hobble for cattle V19, without cross-bar





OccID = 3734
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 512 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red, fill yellow

This cattle hobble is red with a yellow fill typical of Ramesside inscriptions. Red could be used here as a symbol for wood.

V21 : combination of hobble V20 and serpent I10





OccID = 2102
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 513 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : serpent yellow with back and features black, hobble red, fill white

The hobble, an elongated version of V20 is red, representing wood. There is a white fill indicating empty space. The serpent I10 is shown passing through the hobble. It has a black back, yellow body and red belly (cf. Ex.I10).

V22 : whip (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 131
Monument : Haremheb TT.78
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1352
ExemplarID = 514 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : whip green, ties yellow

This whip appears to be made out of fresh plant stalks (green), tied together by two pieces of string made of drier, yellow fibre.

V23 : whip (O.K. form of V22)





OccID = 168
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 515 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow

This early version of the whip V22 shows the twisted fibres of dry, yellow plant fibre used in its manufacture.

V25 : cord wound on stick (XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 2402
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 516 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : stick red, cord yellow

The stick is made of wood (red). The cord wound around the centre is yellow

V26 : netting needle filled with twine





OccID = 2403
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 517 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : spindle red, thread white

This spindle, used for finer thread than in V25, is also made of wood (red). The thread wound around the centre is white.

V28 : wick of twisted flax





OccID = 2841
Monument : Nakht-Min TT.87
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1425
ExemplarID = 518 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : green

This very common signs is yellow in early occurrences (Dynasties III-IV) but thereafter is green with occasional blue variants (see Diachrony). The vast majority, however, are green, representing fresh plant fibre, in this case stalks of flax.

V29 : swab made from a hank of fibre





OccID = 3008
Monument : Userhat TT.56 yellow background
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 519 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green

This hank of flax is green, as in V28. A swab, also of plant matter is atttached to the top. One variant shows the swab as red, possibly indicating blood removed by swabbing a wound.

V29A : combination of swab (V29) and basket (V31)





OccID = 3205
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 520 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : swab outline red, basket green with outline blue and handle red

The swab V29A is red, possibly to show the same use as in V29. The basket V31 is canonical green with a red handle (cf. Ex.V31).

V30 : wickerwork basket





OccID = 1237
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 521 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : green with black cross-hatching

This basket, made from fresh green plant fibre shows the details of the weaving. Variants have more or less of this detail. The earliest Dynasty III-IV occurrences are yellow but thereafter virtually all occurrences are green (see Diachrony).

V31 : wickerwork basket with handle





OccID = 1210
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 522 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : green with black cross-hatching, black handle with white fill

This basket, as for V30, is made from fresh green plant fibre and shows the details of the weaving. Variants have more or less of this detail. The earliest Dynasty III-IV occurrences are yellow but thereafter virtually all occurrences are green (see Diachrony). The handle, when not just green, can be blue, black, red or yellow, probably indicating a variety of material. There is occasionally (as here) a white or yellow fill in the loop.

V31* : basket V31 but with handle on other side (regularly in hieratic)





OccID = 509
Monument : Benia TT.343
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1473 - 1400
ExemplarID = 525 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : basket green, handle red

This basket is a variant of V31, but with the handle on the other side (on the left when reading from left to right). It has exactly the same colouring of green for the basket and what appears to be red or yellow (faded) for the handle.

V32 : wickerwork frail (possibly also a float used by hippopotamus hunters)





OccID = 3349
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 530 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : blue, bands (faded) yellow

This sign is sometimes confused with W8 in the word Abw "Elephantine". This is the context here, but Müller (1940) prefers W8, despite the obvious iconographic differences. This exemplar is clearly not a granite bowl but appears to be  a bundle of blue reeds, lashed together with faded yellow rope (see the commentary on V32).

V33 : bag of linen





OccID = 1597
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 600 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow, blue outline

The bag is pale yellow indicating rough linen. One variant is red (the reason is unclear)..

V36 : receptacle of some kind





OccID = 1883
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 602 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow with black lines and red lashing

This appears to be some form of yellow cane-work basket, with darker lashing around the middle, top and bottom. A variant is green.

Group W : Vessels of Stone and Earthenware

This group contains twenty-six signs, plus three additional variants, of which twenty-five (86%) have database occurrences, all with images.

The distinction between stone and earthenware is obvious from the colours used. Stone, particularly alabaster, is coloured white with yellow or red markings, generally chevrons surrounding a lozenge. This can be seen clearly in the basin W3. Earthenware, however, is most often red or red with blue or black. This contrast between earthenware and stone can be seen in the pot or bowl W10 which can be red or white, depending on the material used.

An unusual use of green is found on the Dynasty XXVII Mon.31 inscription. The stone jar W1 is green instead of the canonical white and yellow. The reason for this is unclear. However, a Dynasty III occurrence (Mon.21) also uses green, this time with black speckles. So, some kind of green stone could be intended. Green could also have been used to indicate the contents of the jar, in this case oil.

Most of the vessels in group W are earthenware pots, jugs and jars. They are generally red or a combination of red base and blue or black top or else blue or black base and red top. The red base with a blue or black top is much like the pre-dynastic Naqadan black-topped ware. This was produced by first firing iron-rich clay in an oxidising atmosphere - a process that produces the red ceramics. The pot was then probably inverted in sawdust while still hot, in order to draw oxygen away from the iron, leaving the black colour. The exact process used is unknown (Bourriau et al. 2000, 128).

Many of these signs for ceramic vessels show the black- or blue-topped variety, but not always with red base and black top but inverted instead, with a black base and a red top. It is unclear whether this was due to a lack of first-hand knowledge of these early pots or else was a deliberate aesthetic choice, perhaps dictated by the later use of decorated ware. It could also be an example of the vessel and its contents, where the blue or black liquid lies naturally in the lower part of the pot. Examples of this reversal of colours can be found for almost all of the group W earthenware pots (e.g. W9, W14, W15, W16, W17, W18, W21, W22, W23 and W24).


W1 : sealed oil-jar





OccID = 1583
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 526 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : jar green, seal red, tie green

This jar is green, a colour not normally used on other monuments for stoneware pots. The reason for this is unclear but it could be to indicate the contents : oil. A Dynasty III variant has black speckles on the green which would imitate stone rather than oil. The seal is red which could represent clay.

W2 : sealed oil-jar, like W1 but without tied ends





OccID = 163
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 527 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : outline red, fill white

This early version of the oil jar W1 is white, indicating stone.

W3 : basin of alabaster as used in purifications





OccID = 2405
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 528 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : white with markings yellow

This alabaster bowl is white with yellow chevrons and central lozenge. It is the canonic way to indicate alabaster, with its darker wavy lines on a white semi-translucid base. Less detailed variants do not show the chevrons but always have the central lozenge.

W4 : combination of basin W3 and booth O22





OccID = 3415
Monument : Deir el-Bahri
Monument type : Funerary temple
Localisation or provenance : Deir el-Bahri
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Hatshepsut
Approximate date : 1473 - 1458
ExemplarID = 529 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : column red, booth yellow, fill white, basin white with lozenge and chevrons yellow

This composite sign shows a booth O22 over a bowl W3. The booth has red columns (wooden) and a yellow roof (linen?) with a white fill to indicate empty space. Underneath is an alabaster bowl W3, white with yellow lozenge and chevrons, representing the darker striations found in Egyptian alabaster. A variant has a yellow bowl with blue markings.

W9 : stone jug with handle





OccID = 1354
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 546 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : upper red (or yellow?), lower white with diagonal red line

This exemplar depicts a jug, made of white stone (probably Egyptian alabaster). The neck, handle and diagonal stripe are yellow, representing the darker marks which usually distinguish this stone.

W9 : stone jug with handle





OccID = 3000
Monument : Userhat TT.56 yellow background
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 531 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : base red, top blue, handle faded

The colouring of this variant of the jug W9, identified by Gardiner as "stone", indicates a typical black (or blue) topped ceramic jar with a red base.

W10 : cup (probably also a basket - see A9)





OccID = 3922
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 532 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

Only one of the database occurrences of this sign is coloured yellow, like a basket (Mon51). One other (see variant) is white. The others are red, indicating pottery or wood. This is, therefore, probably a fired clay cup. See the discussion on A9.

W10 : cup (probably also a basket - see A9)





OccID = 1285
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 533 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : white

This variant of W10 shows a cup made of stone, rather than fired clay.

W11 : ring-stand for jars, also red earthenware pot (round bottom XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 2079
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 534 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : pot red, top black, triangle white

This ring stand, or earthenware pot, has black or blue sides, top and base. The inner part is red with a white triangle in the centre. The signification of these colours is unclear. There are even two very diffferent variants found in identical contexts in the same inscription (Mon.35). One sign is this exemplar, whereas another has white in place of red and red in place of white.

W12 : ring-stand for jars (straight bottom O.K.)





OccID = 2287
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 535 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : stand red, triangle white, top blue

This sign is a variant of W11. It has an identical colour-scheme but the base is straight rather than curved.

W13 : red earthenware pot (O.K.)





OccID = 2491
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 536 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This sign appears to show a pot placed upside down. It is red, indicating fired clay. A variant is blue, perhaps indicating unfired clay.

W14 : tall water-pot





OccID = 1450
Monument : Sobekhotep TT.63
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 537 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : lower part red, upper blue

This tall pot has the typical two-colour scheme of red base and blue top, used for many ceramics.One variant inverts the two colours, something found regularly for this kind of pottery hieroglyph (cf. W17, W24 etc.).

W15 : water-pot W14 with water pouring from it





OccID = 3291
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 538 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : jar base red, upper blue, liquid blue

This pot, which has the same colour scheme as W14 has a stream of water pouring from a spout. The water is blue.

W16 : water-pot W15 in a ring-stand W12





OccID = 3457
Monument : Nefret-iabet G1225
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 539 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : stand red, pot lower red, upper black, water faded

This sign shows the same water-pot as W15, but placed in a ring-stand W12 (the straight-bottomed variety). The colour schemes of both signs have been followed, but the water here is faded.

W17 : water-pots in a rack (XII-XVIII dyn.)





OccID = 3472
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 547 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : base of pots and lower rack blue, upper pots and rack red

This is one of several similar signs, all depicting tall jars held in a rack and all having the same meaning. This sign has three jars with blue bases and red tops. Variants have red bases and blue tops. The cord or stand can be red or blue. One variant has a white fill between the jars and between the jars and the stand.

W17A : hieratic version of W17





OccID = 3562
Monument : Ramses IV KV.2
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses IV
Approximate date : 1153 - 1147
ExemplarID = 548 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : jars red, cord green, fill yellow

This is a hieratic version of W17, found regularly in hieroglyphic inscriptions from Dynasty XVIII onwards. The colour scheme has been simplified so that the pots are red and the stand is blue. There is a yellow fill, as this is a Ramesside inscription (see Diachrony). A variant has a red stand and white fill.

W18 : water-pots in a rack (O.K. form of W17)





OccID = 1861
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 541 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : pots lower blue, upper red, rack blue, fill white

This sign is the same as W17 but with four jars. The colour schemes and variations are the same as for W17.

W18 : water-pots in a rack (O.K. form of W17)





OccID = 207
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 542 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : sides red, pots red with black tops, rack black, seals white with red outline

This variant of W18 illustrates the alternative colour-scheme used for U17 and U18. Interestingly, this exemplar dates from Dynasty IV and is probably the original scheme of decoration, as black-topped ware was still in use at this time.

W18A : hieratic variant of W18





OccID = 3735
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 543 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : vertical strokes red, cord blue, fill yellow

This is the hieratic version of W18 (cf. W17A). It also has red pots, blue stand or cord and a yellow fill.

W19 : milk-jug carried in a net





OccID = 2064
Monument : Ramses I KV.16
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses I
Approximate date : 1295 - 1294
ExemplarID = 544 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : pot red with centre section yellow, horizontal bands blue, rope yellow, fill white

This milk-jug is red earthenware with a blue top. The rope is yellow with a white fill. The net is suggested by two blue horizontal lines with a yellow piece between them. Most variants have less detail and show just yellow rope around a red pot.

W21 : twin wine-jars





OccID = 806
Monument : Iunu G4150
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 545 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red pots with blue (or black?) tops, yellow lashings with red markings

These jars are red with blue or black tops. Variants can be all red. The jars are held in what appears to be a cane basket (yellow).

W22 : beer-jug





OccID = 3456
Monument : Nefret-iabet G1225
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 549 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : lower red, upper black

This beer jug shows the canonical scheme of black (or blue) top and red base. One variant inverts the two colours but all others conform to this early Dynasty IV exemplar.

W23 : jar with handles





OccID = 2504
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 550 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : base blue, upper and handles red

This jug with handles shows more variation than W22, for which it is often a substitute. This exemplar inverts the canonical colours with its blue base and red top. Some variants are all red.

W24 : bowl





OccID = 2515
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 552 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blue

This common variant of the bowl W24 is all blue. Apart from making this ubiquitous sign easier to paint, all blue could be a simple representation of earthenware.

W24 : bowl





OccID = 3289
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 551 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : lower half red, upper blue

This common sign for a round bowl shows some variation. This canonical exemplar has a red base and blue top, but others can have a red top and blue base or be entirely blue.

W25 : combination of bowl W24 and walking legs D54





OccID = 2503
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 553 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : bowl blue, legs red

This composite sign shows a blue version of the bowl W24 above a pair of walking legs, which are canonical red. The legs are often elongated, as here, when used in this sign.

W155 : wine jar with spout





OccID = 1279
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 554 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : red

This wine jar is a deep red colour, depicting either an earthenware pot or a bronze jar.

W188 : pot with poured water





OccID = 3870
Monument : Ta-ouseret-em-per-nesou (aka Unnefer).
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Bab el-Gasus
Period : Dynasty XXI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 1069 - 945
ExemplarID = 555 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : pot blue, liquid red

This sign, usually coupled with a foot (D60), has a blue pot with red water pouring from it. The reason for the red liquid is unclear, but the yellow background may have had some influence on the choice of colour.

Group X : Loaves and Cakes

This small group contains only eight signs, of which seven (88%) have database occurrences, six of them with images.

This group has occurrences for the signs X2, X3, X4, X5 and X6 (no image), all of which generally possess colouring consistent with loaves of bread (white or pale yellow). Some, such as X3 and X4 have bakers’ marks, indentations made with the fingers, such as can be found in many cultures today. That these signs depict loaves is a certainty. However, there are two signs that pose problems of identification. These are the semi-circular X1 and the conical X8.

X1 is the most frequently encountered sign in the monuments studied here. Fifty-one out of a total of fifty-two monuments (98%) possess occurrences. And yet it remains one of the most enigmatic hieroglyphs. The question is why, if X1 represents a loaf, is it consistently coloured black or blue? These are colours used to represent the Nile flood, alluvium, mud-brick, hard stone, night, darkness, the underworld etc. but not, it would seem from the signs X2 - X6, bread. Takács (1996) sees a relationship, supported by many Afro-Asian cognates, between the verb tA “to bake, be hot, burn” (Wb V, 229) and the substantive t “bread”. This would fit the colour of X1 but would still not explain why X2-X6 are coloured differently. Tiradritti (2008, 6) proposes to see in X1 the representation of the primeval mound of earth that rose from the Nun at the Creation. This is a clear possibility as blue-black is the colour used to represent the fertile land that borders the Nile. The sign can also be found in some composite hieroglyphs such as the temple enclosure O7 or the symbol of the West R13. In the case of O7, temples were supposedly built on the symbolic primeval mound. This would explain the X1 sign in the centre of the enclosure. The same symbolism could apply to R13 where the feather, which represents the Horus falcon, rises from the same mound. This explanation does not preclude the fact that a rounded loaf of bread could be named after this mound, in just the same way that we give our own “nick-names” to different kinds of bread. A direct example is the Belgian small, rounded loaf, exactly like X1, which is known in French as a “pistolet” (“pistol”).

X8 is also consistently black or blue, often with a white fill in the triangles. What this object represents is open to speculation. It obviously has something to do with offering or giving (Wb V, 419) but whether it represents an actual loaf is debatable. Conical bread-moulds did exist but the rigid formality of the two triangles is far from the reality of the roughly rounded point of surviving examples (Delwen 2000, 567). X8 could possibly represent a “funerary cone” (LÄ II, 857-859). These were much more geometrically precise than the bread-moulds but were made of white or red clay, unlike the blue used for the hieroglyph. It should also be noted that neither X1 nor X8 is represented as bread on offering tables in funerary scenes. Their precise identification and the explanation of their colours remains a mystery.


X1 : bread





OccID = 3432
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 556 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : black

This early exemplar shows the bread to be black. Variants have various shades of blue. The consistent use of blue-black in this very common sign casts doubt on its identification as a loaf of bread. For a full discussion, see the commentary on X1.

X2 : loaf





OccID = 2882
Monument : Userhat TT.56
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1427 - 1400
ExemplarID = 557 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : pot red, loaf white with top yellow

This sign shows a loaf of bread still in its mould. The bread is white with a faint trace of yellow. The mould is red earthenware. Variants show the loaf and the mould as black, blue or red. Why such variation should be shown for bread is unclear.

X3 : loaf (alternative form of loaf X2)





OccID = 1560
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 565 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow with blue markings

This loaf of bread Is more consistent in its depiction of a loaf as yellow,  bearing the baker's marks in blue. Variants have less detail and one is all blue.

X4 : roll of bread





OccID = 1539
Monument : Khonsou-Tefnakht E.586
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : El Hibeh
Period : Dynasty XXVII
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 525 - 404
ExemplarID = 560 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow with blue markings

This exemplar has the same yellow colour with blue baker's marks as for X3. Variants have the marks in red or yellow and the loaf can be white.

X5 : roll of bread - semi-hieratic form of X4





OccID = 3282
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 561 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green

This sign is a hieratic form of X4, the long roll of bread. This reading is confirmed by the context of sni "to be like" (FCD 230), despite the use of the colour green which seems at odds with the identification of this sign as bread.

X8 : conical loaf (?)





OccID = 3481
Monument : Amenhotep III KV.22
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1390 - 1352
ExemplarID = 562 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : dark blue, fill white

This common sign, usually identified as a conical loaf, is consistently dark blue or black, often with a white fill. For a full discussion of the symbolism, see the commentaries on X1 and X8.

Group Y : Writing, Games, Music

This small group contains only eight signs, of which five (63%) have database occurrences, all of them with images. These five signs are Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4 and Y5. None of the signs for musical instruments is recorded in the database.

The papyrus rolls Y1 and Y2 are mostly white with red binding. Sometimes a central blue seal is present.

The scribe’s equipment Y3 (Y4 is simply Y3 reversed) is variable in its polychromy, depending upon the materials used in its manufacture - metal, wood, leather, pottery etc. However, all variants are recognisable as figurative images (Tiradritti 2008, 59-61; LÄ IV, 656-658).

The board game Y5 is always red, showing it to have been made of wood. It varies in its details (number of pawns, number of rows, number of squares) and in the colour of the pawns (blue or green). However, all the variants appear to represent the same board game - “senet” (OEAE II, 2-3). Many surviving examples show the same variations but all have the same basic form.


Y1 : papyrus rolled up, tied and sealed (also vertically from XII dyn.)





OccID = 2452
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 563 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : roll white, lashings red, seal blue (?)

The papyrus roll is white with red or yellow string, tied in a knot. This exemplar also has a blue seal, probably made from a lump of clay.

Y2 : papyrus roll (O.K. form of Y1)





OccID = 3433
Monument : Wepemnefret G1201
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 564 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : roll white, string red, seal black

This Dynasty IV vertical version of X1, a papyrus roll,  is also white with red string and a black or dark blue (clay) seal. Variants can be all red or all blue.

Y3 : scribe's outfit, consisting of palette, bag for pigments and reed-holder





OccID = 2518
Monument : Nakht TT.52
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 566 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : reed holder and pot blue, reeds and rope red, palette yellow, inkwell red (only one visible)

The reed holder is blue, with the red tip of a reed shown at the top. As  the holder is the same colour as the bag for holding pigments, they could both be made of leather (LÄ IV, 656-658). The reed holder and bag are connected by red rope to a yellow, wooden palette that contains inkwells for red and black paint. The black inkwell is faded in this exemplar. This sign shows some variation. The bag can be red, as in an early Dynasty IV occurrence (Mon.6) or red and blue in a Dynasty XXII occurrence (Mon.52). This would suggest a pot rather than a bag (this is also suggested by Gardiner (EG 534)). The rope can be yellow. The palette can sometimes (in early occurrences) be green or black.

Y4 : scribe's outfit - alternative form of Y3





OccID = 2753
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 567 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : reed holder and pot blue, reed tip and string red, palette yellow

The sign is just the previous sign Y3 reversed. The colours are the same and show the same degree of variation.

Y5 : draught-board (game of senet)





OccID = 2740
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 568 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : board red with white dots, pieces green

This senet board shows little variation, apart from a few details. The board is red, indicating wood. One Dynasty XXVI occurrence shows grid-lines marking out three rows of ten squares. This exemplar has two rows of nine white dots achieving the same effect. The number of gaming pieces ranges from six to ten and their colour varies mostly from blue to green, probably indicating coloured stone.

Group Z : Strokes, Signs derived from Hieratic, Geometrical Figures

This group contains eleven signs, plus one additional sign, of which eight (67%) have database occurrences, all of them with images.

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are simply strokes, indicating number. As such, they have mostly been coloured black or occasionally red. This is similar to the use of black or red ink on papyrus.

Z7, the shorthand form of the quail chick G43, can be yellow, black or red. Yellow probably in imitation of the colour of G43, black or red in the same manner as for the other strokes.

The crossed sticks or planks Z9 and Z11 are almost always red, showing them to be pieces of wood.


Z1 : stroke (a wooden dowel?)





OccID = 3929
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 569 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : black

As with all the strokes Z1-Z4, these signs vary between blue, black or red. It seems illusiory to attempt to identify them with a specific object (in this case a wooden dowel). They appear more likely to be simple strokes such as can be drawn and painted with the two basic colours at the scribe's disposal : red ochre and carbon black.

Z2 : three strokes (also written 1 over 2 and vertically)





OccID = 3719
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 570 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : black

See remarks for Z1.

Z3 : three vertical strokes Z1 written vertically





OccID = 1775
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 571 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : black

See remarks for Z1.

Z4 : two diagonal strokes





OccID = 3310
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 572 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : black

See remarks for Z1.

Z7 : abbreviated form of quail-chick G43 (XVIII dyn. from Akhenaton)





OccID = 1426
Monument : Huy TT.54
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 573 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow with red outline

This abbreviated form of G43, the quail chick, probably inherits its yellow colour from the original sign. However there are occurrences that use red and black. Both these colours could be the result of basic scribal colouring, just as is found in the preceding strokes Z1-Z4.

Z9 : two sticks crossed





OccID = 2411
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 575 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

The sticks are red, representing wood. Variants have black or blue, probably used in the same way as for the strokes Z1-Z4.

Z11 : two planks crossed and joined





OccID = 3312
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 576 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

The two crossed planks are always red, representing wood.

Z107 : number eight, Ogdoad of Hermopolis





OccID = 1782
Monument : Tjanuni TT.74
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 577 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : black

This sign is black, just as for the strokes Z1-Z4. The number eight represents the Ogdoad of Hermopolis.

Group Aa : Unclassified

This group contains twenty-eight signs of which nineteen (68%) have database occurrences, thirteen of them with images. The group includes doubtful identifications and signs which are difficult to categorise in other groups.

The most frequent, with forty-seven occurrences, and also one of the most intriguing signs in this group is Aa1, tentatively described by Gardiner as a “human placenta?”. This identification is based on an article by Blackman (1916), which is no longer a convincing hypothesis as it is itself based on a limited amount of data (Blackman 1916, 237) and ignores the importance of colour as a means of identification. The sign, which has the phonetic value of x, according to some authors also serves to write the word x “placenta?” (FCD 182 after EG 539; Bonnamy and Sadek 2010, 447). However, this reading appears to be contentious as neither the Wörterbuch (Wb III, 217, 1-3), nor Hannig (2006, 621) gives this acception. Moreover, the canonical colour of green, often with a black outer ring and horizontal stripes seems to rule out this identification. Green is the colour of fresh vegetation and growth and could perhaps be associated with a placenta through this metaphorical symbolism. However, human body parts are usually painted red in an attempt at naturalistic colouring (see Group D) and it would be surprising if the natural red of the placenta were represented by yellow (early Old Kingdom) or green (Dynasty V onwards) (see Diachrony).

Another meaning of x is “child” (FCD 182; Wb III, 217, 3; Hannig 2006, 621). I have already shown (see Diachrony) that Aa1 is almost certainly an object made from cane- or rush-work basketry. Some authors see this sign as a sieve, which is certainly a possibility (e.g. GREC 539; Bonnamy and Sadek 2010, 884). The connection between a sieve and a placenta is not an impossible construct but remains pure speculation. The Aa1 entry in the sign-list in Malaise and Winand (GREC 539) comes close to an identification as a “crible ou couvercle fait de matières végétales”. In fact, this object could be the basket V30 or its cover, seen from above : an object that recalls the mythological topos of the child, abandoned and rediscovered (i.e. reborn) floating in a basket on the river. This topos is found in several Ancient Near Eastern traditions such as Hittite (“A Tale of Two Cities : Kanesh and Zalpa” (Singer 1995, 124)), Akkadian (“The Legend of Sargon” (ANET 119)) and Biblical (“The birth of Moses” (Exodus 2:2-6)). The Egyptian myth is similar, with the child Horus hidden by his mother in the papyrus marshes until he is strong enough to challenge Seth (Plutarch “De Iside et Osiride” 357F). There is even a link between the basket and the notions of birth and rebirth through the name of Moses : Egyptian ms(w) meaning “to be born” (Wb II, 137, 11). The colour of the hieroglyph thus appears to work on two levels : first as the natural green of a woven basket and secondly as a metaphor for (re)birth, youth and growth.

Aa2 is described by Gardiner as “a pustule or gland?” based on its use in medical texts (EG 539). However, it is unclear exactly what is intended by this sign. It is obviously something unpleasant, when we consider the different words it determines: “disease, odour, excrement” (EG 539). The exemplar shown is plain white, which would suggest a bandage, one of the words cited by Gardiner (wt). The sign also has connections with embalming and could thus represent one of the wrapped organs removed from the body. It could also be some kind of linen compress, applied to a wound. Variants can be yellow or red. Yellow could also represent a bandage but red would suggest a body part or a bloodied compress.

Aa5 is described as “part of the steering gear of ships?”. This is possible as the exemplar shown here is red, indicating a wooden object. A Dynasty VI variant is green. Gardiner mentions that the object may be made from rushes bound together, which corresponds to this colour. However, it is difficult to see how rushes would be strong enough to be used in steering gear.

Aa8 shows “irrigation runnels”. This sign is often confused with several others, even in modern transcriptions (EG 540-541). These signs are N24, V26 and O34. Aa8 is either all blue, representing water, or blue with the three vertical lines in red. This could indicate that the perpendicular channels are seasonally dry, unwatered desert.

The plinth Aa11 is a common sign that is often encountered in scenes that show a statue on a plinth or especially in scenes showing Osiris seated on his throne (e.g. Tiradritti 2008, 286). The colour blue is compatible with both of these depictions, either as a stone base for a statue or as an underworld metaphor such as for the sign showing the seat Q1. The use of red is more problematic. If Aa11 does represent a plinth, wood is an unlikely material. Therefore, either this is a misinterpretation of the object, or red is used in some unusual, metaphorical manner.

Aa13 and Aa15 are not always easily distinguishable, but both have the same basic shape and generally the same red colour. Aa14 however, an Old Kingdom version of Aa13, can be yellow, blue or green. The reason is unclear. Aa13-Aa15 are semantically linked to a part of the body (imw) or the side (gs) and the colour red would support this view. The description of “two ribs of an oryx” has been suggested, but even Gardiner doubts this (EG 542).

Aa18 is identified by Gardiner as a Dyn. XII - Dyn. XVIII version of Aa17 which he describes as“the back of something”, based only on the phonetic value of the sign - sA, meaning “back”. The polychromy used here would suggest an object made from wooden slats, with a handle attached. This could be a box with a lid or a door of some kind.

Aa19 has been described as a hobble for cattle, as in V19-V21 (Bonnamy and Sadek 2010, 885), but V20 and V21 are red in the database. It is difficult to interpret this similar sign, either through its phonetic value (Hr) or through its use as a determinative (Wb V, 355-356). The colour black is often used for numerals, so this could be the result of confusion with V20, the sign for "10". This is certainly the case here as the context is that of a numeral.

Aa21 is described by Gardiner as “a carpenter’s tool?”. It certainly shows an object made of wood, as it is coloured red, with what looks like two parts that slide or slot together. A carpenter’s tool (some kind of vice?) is a possibility. Jonkheere (1954, 154-155), rather fancifully identifies it as a human castration device, based largely on the evidence of post-mortem removal of the penis and testicles as seen in the battle scenes at Medinet Habu. For this macabre practice, I would have thought that a sharp knife would have done the job far more efficiently. I believe that this implement is in fact a wooden sluice-gate, used for regulating the flow of flood water through irrigation channels (Pregill and Volkman 1999, 64-65; Butzer 1976, 47). A sluice-gate would also have provided the ideal perch for a heron from which to spy its prey, exactly as seen in the sign G32. The sign Aa21 is an ideogram for the word wDa, one of the meanings of which is “to open (a door)” (FCD 75; Wb I, 404: “Synonym zu wp”). The value of the composite sign G32 is baH which means “to flood, to flow, inundated land” (FCD 81; Wb I, 448). The semantic evidence is compelling. The visual evidence, including that of the polychromy, lends further weight to the identification. I would suggest, therefore, that this sign Aa21 be reclassified in Group U which contains the agricultural tools and be renamed as “a wooden sluice-gate”. The similar sign O30, when inverted, was also reclassified by Gardiner between U12 and U13 (EG 517) where it is named “a pitchfork”. Gardiner himself doubts this identification as the sign is used as a determinative in the word sDb meaning “impediment” or “obstacle” (FCD 258). This could suggest the forked stick as being the mechanism in a sluice-gate that controls the passage of water as an “obstacle” or “impediment” to the flow.


Aa1 : kind of sieve? Or maybe a placenta?





OccID = 3455
Monument : Nefret-iabet G1225
Monument type : Slab stela
Localisation or provenance : Giza
Period : Dynasty IV
Reign(s) : Khufu
Approximate date : 2589 - 2566
ExemplarID = 578 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : yellow with red lines

This early Dynasty IV exemplar is yellow with red lines. It appears to be some kind of canework. For a full discussion, see the commentary on Aa1.

Aa1 : kind of sieve? Or maybe a placenta?





OccID = 1358
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 579 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green with black lines

This Middle Kingdom Dynasty XII exemplar is green with black lines. It also appears to be some kind of basketwork, this time using fresh vegetation. For a full discussion, see the commentary on Aa1.

Aa1 : kind of sieve? Or maybe a placenta?





OccID = 1228
Monument : Horemheb KV.57
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Horemheb
Approximate date : 1323 - 1295
ExemplarID = 21 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : green

This New Kingdom Dynasty XVIII exemplar is green without lines. It is probably a simplification of the previous exemplar and remains the canonical version in use at least until the latest database occurrence (Mon.31 - Dynasty XXVII). For a full discussion, see the commentary on Aa1.

Aa2 : pustule or gland ?





OccID = 1359
Monument : Sarenput II
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Elephantine
Period : Dynasty XII
Reign(s) : Amenemhat II
Approximate date : 1911 - 1877
ExemplarID = 603 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : white

It is unclear exactly what is intended by this sign. This exemplar is plain white, which would suggest a bandage or a compress. Variants can be yellow or red. See the commentary on Aa2 for more detail.

Aa5 : part of the steering gear of ships ?





OccID = 3739
Monument : Ay KV.23
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Ay
Approximate date : 1327 - 1323
ExemplarID = 581 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : red

This sign could represent some sort of ship's gear, as it is red and probably made of wood. A Dynasty VI variant is green, which could indicate rushwork.

Aa8 : irrigation runnels (as in N24 ?) - see extensive notes in Gardiner





OccID = 2486
Monument : Menna TT.69
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV
Approximate date : 1400 - 1390
ExemplarID = 593 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : verticals red, horizontals blue (smudged)

This sign, despite some confusion over its identification (EG 541), appears to represent an irrigation channel. Variants show the sign as all blue, representing water, but this exemplar also has three red vertical lines which could indicate dry, unwatered desert.

Aa11 : doubtful (sometimes vertical)





OccID = 1820
Monument : Peftjauneith
Monument type : Coffin
Localisation or provenance : Sais
Period : Dynasty XXVI
Reign(s) : ?
Approximate date : 664 - 525
ExemplarID = 592 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : blue

This sign appears to show a plinth, often depicted as the base for statues. It is commonly found in two versions : blue and red. Blue, in this case, probably indicates stone.  

Aa11 : doubtful (sometimes vertical)





OccID = 2862
Monument : Paroy TT.295
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Khokha
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose IV - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1400 - 1352
ExemplarID = 584 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red

This common red variant of the plinth may indicate wood.

Aa13 : two ribs of oryx ??





OccID = 154
Monument : Haremheb TT.78
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep III
Approximate date : 1479 - 1352
ExemplarID = 591 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : ribs red, fill white

The signs Aa13-Aa15 are often difficult to distinguish, especially as their signification is identical. Aa13 has one blue variant but all the others are red.

Aa14 : O.K. form of Aa13





OccID = 629
Monument : Ankhmerire
Monument type : Mastaba
Localisation or provenance : Saqqara
Period : Dynasty VI
Reign(s) : Pepy I
Approximate date : 2321 - 2287
ExemplarID = 585 - statistical relevance rating : **

Colours used : yellow

This Dynasty VI version of Aa13 is yellow, although a Dynasty XXVI variant is blue and a Dynasty XXVII variant is green. The signification of these colours is unclear.

Aa15 : XVIII dyn. form of Aa13





OccID = 2732
Monument : Menkheper TT.79
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 586 - statistical relevance rating : *****

Colours used : red

This version of Aa13 has a rounded point. All occurrences are red, indicating either a part of the body or an object made of wood. The former is more likely as there is semantic evidence (see Aa13). Some occurrences have a white or a yellow fill (Ramesside).

Aa16 : short form of Aa13





OccID = 3315
Monument : Penmaât
Monument type : Mummy board
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XXII
Reign(s) : Osorkon I - ?
Approximate date : 945 - 715
ExemplarID = 587 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : green

This short form of Aa13 is used only in the word gs "side, half" and as phonetic gs (FCD 291). This unique database occurrence is green. The signification is unclear.

Aa18 : back of something (XII-XVIII dyn. form of Aa17)





OccID = 2416
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 588 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : yellow, markings red

This sign, described by Gardiner as the "back of something" (EG 542), appears to be made of wood, with separate planks picked out in red. There seems to be a handle attached to the top. The only semantic clue is the word sA "back" (FCD 208). It appears to be similar to the gateway O32.

Aa19 : doubtful (different from V19)





OccID = 3707
Monument : Ramses V-VI KV.9
Monument type : Royal Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Valley of the Kings
Period : Dynasty XX
Reign(s) : Ramses V - VI
Approximate date : 1147 - 1136
ExemplarID = 589 - statistical relevance rating : *

Colours used : black

The identification of this sign is difficult. The colour black is often used for numerals, so this could be the result of confusion with V20, the sign for "10". This is probably the case here as the context is that of a numeral.

Aa21 : a carpenter's tool ?





OccID = 2417
Monument : Rekhmire TT.100
Monument type : Private Tomb
Localisation or provenance : Sheikh Abd el-Gurna
Period : Dynasty XVIII
Reign(s) : Thutmose III - Amenhotep II
Approximate date : 1479 - 1400
ExemplarID = 149 - statistical relevance rating : ***

Colours used : red

This implement is tentatively described by Gardiner as a carpenter's tool. Coloured red, it is certainly made of wood and appears to have two parts which slide together. For a discussion of a possible identification as a wooden sluice-gate, see the commentaries on Aa21 and G32.

Aa27 : doubtful





OccID = 3115
Monument : Temple of Ramses II (Abydos)
Monument type : Temple
Localisation or provenance : Abydos
Period : Dynasty XIX
Reign(s) : Ramses II
Approximate date : 1279 - 1213
ExemplarID = 590 - statistical relevance rating : ****

Colours used : red, centre white

This sign is identified by Allen (2000, 448) as a "spindle" : a vague term which could describe many objects. It is somewhat similar to the flame rising from a brazier Q7. Apart from one black occurrence, it is always red, sometimes with a white or yellow centre. A flame seems to be the most likely identification.